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Paper  and  its  Uses 


A TREATISE  FOR  PRINTERS 
STATIONERS  AND  OTHERS 


BY 

EDWARD  A.  DAWE 


Assistant  Examiner  of  Paper,  H.M.  Stationery  Office  ; 
City  and  Guilds  of  London  Instructor  in  Typography ; 
Honours  Silver  Medallist  in  Typography 


NEW  YORK 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 
MCMXIV 


Printed  at 
The  Darien  Press 
Edinburgh 


PREFACE 


The  library  of  the  papermaker  is  well  furnished  with 
excellent  works  on  the  manufacture  of  paper,  but  the 
printer,  stationer,  and  student  are  not  so  well  catered 
for.  The  present  volume  aims  to  present  a concise 
and  comprehensive  treatise  on  the  manufacture  and 
use  of  paper,  which  shall  be  intelligible  to  the  student, 
and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  progressive  to  lead  to 
the  study  of  the  larger  works  on  papermaking. 

The  late  Mr  Richard  Parkinson  was  responsible 
for  a work  which  sought  to  fill  the  want  in  the  printer’s 
technical  library,  and  by  extensive  study  and  research 
he  was  able  to  produce  a clear  and  concise  book  on 
paper  and  its  uses.  An  important  feature  of  great 
practical  value  was  a section  of  samples  bound  at  the 
end  of  the  work.  By  adopting  the  plan  of  this  earlier 
volume,  the  Author  feels  that  the  utmost  usefulness  is 
obtained.  This  has  been  possible  by  the  generosity  of 
Mr  R.  E.  Parkinson,  who  placed  the  rights  in  his 
father’s  work  at  the  writer’s  disposal. 

Reference  to  the  Syllabus  of  the  Examinations  of  the 
City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  for  Typographic 
and  Lithographic  Students  will  show  that  a more 
detailed  knowledge  of  the  manufacture  of  paper  and 
its  use  is  expected  than  can  be  found  in  the  text- 

ni 


IV 


PREFACE 


books  on  printing.  It  is  believed  that  the  sections 
dealing  with  testing  papers,  the  prices  and  weights  of 
papers,  as  well  as  the  alphabetical  list,  will  prove  of 
value  to  students  generally. 

Illustrations  of  methods  of  manufacture  and  of 
various  machinery  have  been  kindly  lent  by  the 
manufacturers  to  render  the  mysteries  of  the  making, 
treatment,  and  testing  of  paper  a little  clearer.  The 
wholesale  houses  have  rendered  valuable  assistance  by 
supplying  the  samples  bound  at  the  end  of  the  volume, 
and  with  helpful  advice.  To  all  these  and  to  other 
friends  who  have  revised  the  proofs  of  the  work  the 
Author  tenders  his  grateful  thanks. 

EDWARD  A.  DAWE. 


Wallington,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Raw  Materials  -------  i 

II.  Reduction  to  Pulp  - - - - - 8 

III.  Manufacture  of  Hand-made  and  Mould-made 

Papers  --------  14 

IV.  Machine-made  Papers  - - - - - 18 

V.  Finishing  -------  28 

VI.  Manufacture  of  Boards  -----  35 

VII.  Writing  Papers  - • - - - - - 38 

VIII.  Printing  Papers  -------  43 

IX.  Coated  Papers  and  Boards  - - - - 48 

X.  Miscellaneous  Papers  — Blotting,  Tissue, 
Copying,  Duplicating,  Cover,  Gummed 
Wrapping  - - - - - - - 51 

XI.  Cards  and  Cardboards  - -----  58 

XII.  Durability  of  Paper  - - - - - 61 

XIII.  Defects  and  Remedies  - - - 66 

XIV.  The  Right  Paper  ------  79 

XV.  The  Stock  Room  ------  89 

XVI.  Paper  Testing  - -----  96 

XVII.  Alphabetical  List  of  Papers  - - - - 113 

Tables  of  Sizes,  Weights,  and  Prices  of  Papers 

and  Boards  -------  135 

Equivalent  Weights  of  Papers  of  Various 

Sizes - - - - 144 

Problems  in  Cost,  Weight,  and  Quantities  of 

Paper - - - 146 

Paper  Trade  Customs  149 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 


City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  Ex- 
aminations— Extracts  from  Syllabus  of 
Typography  and  Lithography  - 152 

Books  and  Periodicals  on  Papermaking  and 

Testing  - - -154 

Index  - - - - - - - - 155 


Samples  of  Paper  - - at  end  of  voluine 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Beating  Engine  ------  io 

2.  Edge  Runner  or  Kollergang  - 12 

3.  Hand  Moulds  and  Deckle  - - - - 15 

4.  Method  of  Making  Small  Sheets  on  Hand 

Mould  --------  16 

5.  Elevation  of  Paper  Machine  - 19 

6.  Front  View  of  Paper  Machine  22 

7.  End  of  Wove  Dandy  Roll  - - 24 

8.  End  of  Laid  Dandy  Roll  24 

9.  End  of  Spiral  Laid  Dandy  Roll  - - - 24 

10.  Single  Cylinder  Paper  Machine  - - 26 

11.  Web  Glazing  Calender  -----  31 

12.  Ball  Frame  for  Hanging  Paper  - - - 69 

13.  “Swift”  Paper  Curing  Machine  - - - 70 

14.  Paper  Scale  -------  97 

15.  Marshall’s  Paper-Testing  Machine  - - 98 

16.  Leunig  Paper-Testing  Machine  - - - 99 

17  to  21.  Papermaking  Fibres:  Rag,  Hemp,  Manilla, 

Jute  ------  facing  109 

22  to  26.  Papermaking  Fibres  : Straw,  Esparto, 

Bamboo,  Chemical  Wood,  Mechanical 
Wood  -------  facing  no 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


CHAPTER  I 

RAW  MATERIALS 

PAPERMAKING  is  an  industry  which  is  in  many  ways 
handmaiden  to  other  industries.  In  the  case  of  letter- 
press,  lithographic,  and  plate  printing  it  furnishes  the 
supporting  medium,  without  which  the  dissemination  of 
knowledge  would  be  more  difficult.  Long  ago  the 
printer  appreciated  the  fact  that  the  invention  of  the 
art  of  typography  enlarged  the  sum  of  the  world’s 
knowledge,  but  perhaps  he  has  not  always  been  ready 
to  give  the  papermaker  a fair  share  of  the  credit.  It 
must  be  conceded  that  while  many  things  will  serve  as 
printing  surfaces,  the  question  of  cost  decides  against 
their  general  use,  and  that  paper  is  the  principal 
material  employed  for  written  and  printed  books.  It 
is  with  these  uses  that  this  work  deals,  while  some 
others  are  touched  upon. 

The  history  of  papermaking  takes  us  back  beyond 
the  Christian  era — the  Chinese  being  credited  with 
the  production  of  paper  from  vegetable  fibres  about  80 
to  150  B.C.  The  ancient  Egyptians  made  paper  from 
the  stems  of  the  tall  reed  which  we  know  as  the 
papyrus.  By  skilfully  flattening  out  layers  of  the 
stems,  forming  them  into  sheets,  and  preparing  the 


2 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


surface  for  writing,  the  Egyptians  provided  themselves 
with  excellent  paper. 

European  papermaking  dates  from  the  eleventh 
century,  and  English  papermaking  from  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  colophon  to  Wynkyn  de  Worde’s  “ De 
Proprietatibus  Rerum  ” mentions  the  paper  mill  of 
John  Tate  at  Stevenage  in  Hertfordshire.  Early 
English  papers  were  made  from  rag  fibres,  and  rag 
papers  still  hold  the  premier  place. 

Cellulose  is  the  substance  of  which  the  permanent 
cell  membranes  of  plants  are  composed,  and  it  forms  the 
bulk  of  the  tissues  of  wood  and  similar  plant  structures. 
In  most  cases  the  presence  of  colouring  matter  and 
various  waxy  and  resinous  substances  taken  up  by  the 
growing  plant  render  the  cellulose  very  impure,  and  it 
is  desirable  that,  as  far  as  possible,  all  impurities  should 
be  removed  before  the  fibres  are  made  into  paper. 
Cotton  is  the  purest  form  of  cellulose  found  in  nature, 
9 1 per  cent,  of  the  natural  cotton  fibre  being  pure  cellu- 
lose, while  esparto  yields  only  about  50  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  as  cellulose.  Notwithstanding  the  many  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  plants,  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  fibres  is  practically  identical.  One  of  the  principal 
characteristics  of  cellulose  is  its  extreme  permanence, 
which  is  principally  due  to  the  fact  that  it  forms  but 
few  chemical  combinations  with  other  substances. 

Vegetable  fibres  of  all  kinds  may  be  converted  into 
paper,  but  no  new  fibre  threatens  those  now  employed, 
unless  it  can  be  obtained  in  large  quantities,  responds 
readily  to  the  usual  bleaching  reagents,  and  can  be 
delivered  to  the  papermaker  at  a price  which  enables  it 
to  compete  successfully  with  the  fibres  at  present  in  use 
at  the  paper  mill.  In  some  cases  the  plant  fibres  are 
reduced  to  pulp  near  the  place  of  growth,  in  others 
the  raw  material  is  transported  in  its  entirety.  Other 


RAW  MATERIALS 


3 


sources  of  supply  are  the  wastes  of  other  industries, 
and  wastes  which  have  no  other  uses. 

The  classification  may  take  place  as  follows  : ( a ) 
waste — rags,  sails,  sacking,  ropes,  textile  wastes,  waste 
paper  ; (J?)  plant  stents  and  wood — straw,  esparto,  bam- 
boo, papyrus,  hedychium  ; (c)  pulps  or  half-stuffs — 
straw,  esparto,  delta  cellulose  (or  reed  pulp),  bamboo, 
chemical  wood,  mechanical  wood. 

Rags  are  the  cast-off  fabrics  of  the  civilised  world. 
Having  served  their  purpose  in  administering  to  the 
comfort  of  mankind,  they  are  sorted,  graded,  and 
offered  in  the  market  for  papermakers.  For  the 
manufacture  of  paper  for  bank-notes  new  linen  cut- 
tings are  used,  but  this  is  an  exceptional  material  for  a 
special  purpose.  Sail  cloth,  bagging,  sacking  and 
ropes,  made  from  hemp,  jute,  manilla  hemp,  having 
reached  the  waste  market,  are  regenerated  in  the 
mill  as  paper.  Waste  paper  of  all  kinds  is  sorted 
and  re-made  into  paper  or  boards. 

Esparto  is  the  principal  material  that  finds  its  way 
to  the  papermaker  in  its  original  state.  It  is  a wiry 
grass,  growing  extensively  in  Spain  and  Africa,  and  is 
harvested  and  packed  in  bales  for  export.  Straw 
is  generally  imported  as  half-stuff.  Bamboo,  papyrus, 
and  hedychium  are  being  used  in  quite  a small  way  in 
this  country,  but  may  be  extensively  used  in  the  future. 

Straw,  esparto,  reed  pulp,  and  bamboo  are  obtainable 
as  half-stuff  or  pulp,  that  is,  they  are  already  divested 
of  the  portions  of  the  plant  which  are  non-fibrous,  and 
therefore  useless  to  the  papermaker.  Wood  pulp  is 
the  chief  material  converted  into  paper,  and  may  be 
prepared  as  chemical  or  mechanical.  Chemical  wood 
pulp  is  prepared,  after  removing  the  bark  from  the 
felled  trees,  and  cutting  the  logs  into  chips,  by  boiling 
with  caustic  soda  solution  (soda  pulp),  with  a mixture 


4 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


of  caustic  soda  and  sulphate  of  soda  (sulphate  pulp), 
or  with  bi-sulphite  of  lime  (sulphite  pulp).  Mechanical 
wood  pulp  is  obtained  by  cutting  the  logs  into  short 
lengths,  removing  the  bark,  and  grinding  to  pulp  on  a 
large  grindstone,  the  surface  of  which  is  freely  supplied 
with  water.  The  water  renders  the  reduction  to  pulp 
an  easier  matter,  and  also  serves  to  carry  the  pulp 
forward  for  subsequent  treatment. 

In  speaking  of  paper  it  is  usual  to  refer  to  the 
material  from  which  it  is  made,  rag,  rope,  esparto, 
manilla  or  wood  papers.  It  does  not  always  follow 
that  the  papers  are  composed  entirely  of  those  fibres, 
but  the  prefix  of  “ pure  ” or  “ all  ” will  generally  indicate 
the  genuine  articles.  Paper  which  is  free  from  mechani- 
cal wood  pulp  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  “ free.” 

The  strongest  and  best  papers  are  made  from 
cotton  or  linen  rag  fibres.  Linen  is  made  from  the 
fibres  of  the  flax.  In  the  raw  state  the  fibres  are 
from  i inch  to  I \ inches  in  length,  and  less  than  toVo  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  Examined  microscopically  the 
fibres  appear  to  be  smooth,  cylindrical,  with  markings  like 
the  joints  of  a cane,  slight  cross  markings,  and  a very 
fine  channel  running  through  the  fibres.  Papers  made 
from  linen  are  close,  strong,  and  durable.  Cotton  is 
the  seed-hair  of  the  cotton  plant,  having  a length  of  il 
to  1 1 inches  with  the  diameter  about  the  same  as  that 
of  linen  fibres.  Cotton  is  tubular,  has  a large  channel, 
and  on  drying  the  tube  collapses  and  twists  upon  itself, 
as  many  as  300  twists  in  the  length  of  a single  fibre 
having  been  observed.  This  twisting  assists  in  keep- 
ing the  spun  cotton  together,  and  also  makes  the  felting 
of  the  subsequent  paper  more  efficient.  Papers  made 
from  cotton  are  softer  than  those  made  from  linen, 
and  the  tenderest  rags,  such  as  worn  muslins,  are  em- 
ployed for  blotting  papers.  Hemp  is  obtained  from 


RAW  MATERIALS 


5 


the  stem  of  the  hemp  plant,  and  the  papermaker 
receives  it  in  the  form  of  old  ropes  and  string.  The 
dimensions  and  properties  of  the  fibre  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  fibre  of  linen.  Jute  is  the  inner  bark  of 
an  Indian  plant,  producing  fibres  to  of  an  inch  in  length 
by  toVo  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  fibre  is  smooth, 
difficult  to  bleach,  but  the  resulting  paper  is  strong  and 
tough.  The  fibre  of  the  manilla  hemp  is  not  as  long 
as  the  ordinary  hemp,  being  about  x of  an  inch  by  xoVo 
of  an  inch,  cannot  be  bleached  to  a good  white,  so  a 
white  manilla  paper  is  considerably  lower  in  colour 
than  other  white  papers.  Manilla  paper  is,  however, 
very  tough  and  strong,  and  though  a large  quantity  of 
“ manilla  ” paper  is  made  entirely  of  wood  pulp,  there 
is  a great  difference  between  the  real  and  the  imitation. 

The  fibres  from  straw  are  small,  only  about  xV  of  an 
inch  by  wVo  of  an  inch,  and  consequently  straw  papers 
are  much  weaker  than  those  made  from  longer  and 
broader  fibres,  but,  as  an  admixture,  straw  still  finds  a 
place  in  writing  papers,  giving  translucency  and  rattle. 
Esparto  fibres  are  also  very  short  and  fine,  about 
to  to  xV  of  an  inch  by  woo  of  an  inch,  making  a light 
bulky  paper  when  used  by  itself,  and  blended  with  other 
materials — with  rags  for  good  writings,  and  with  chemi- 
cal wood  for  fine  printings  and  litho.  papers — to  impart 
special  characteristics,  such  as  opacity  and  softness,  which 
may  be  lacking  in  the  other  fibres.  The  well-known 
featherweight  papers,  used  for  bulky  volumes  of  fiction, 
are  frequently  manufactured  from  esparto  fibre  alone. 

The  fibres  of  the  various  wood  pulps  vary  con- 
siderably in  length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  being  from 
w of  an  inch  to  ^ of  an  inch  long,  and  generally  very 
thin.  Fibres  of  various  shapes  are  met  with  in  wood 
pulps,  some  not  unlike  linen  fibres,  but  many  others 
so  distinct  as  to  be  unlike  all  those  that  have  been 


6 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


already  described.  Broad,  ribbon-like  fibres,  some 
pitted,  and  others  perforated,  all  are  very  thin,  lying 
closely  together,  so  that  a paper  made  entirely  from 
sulphite  'wood  pulp  is  rather  harsh  and  fairly  trans- 
parent. Papers  produced  from  soda  pulp  are  softer 
and  more  opaque  than  those  made  from  sulphite  pulp. 
Mechanical  wood  pulp  is  made  up  of  little  pieces 
of  wood  with  all  the  resins  and  other  impurities 
of  the  original  wood,  and  when  examined  carefully, 
the  fragments  of  wood  can  be  seen,  and  the  splinters 
appear  to  be  held  together  by  the  plant  cells. 
Mechanical  wood  pulp  possesses  very  little  felting 
quality,  and  requires  the  addition  of  larger  fibres,  such 
as  chemical  wood,  in  order  to  make  paper  successfully. 

From  the  foregoing  list  and  descriptions  it  can  be 
seen  that  papermakers  have  a variety  of  fibres  at  their 
command,  and  it  is  by  selecting,  sometimes  by  blend- 
ing, fibres  of  different  characteristics,  that  the  manu- 
facture of  the  large  variety  of  papers  is  possible. 
Some  of  the  demands  made  by  the  world  of  paper 
users  are  for  papers  which  are  very  strong  or  very 
soft,  absorbent,  resistant  to  grease  or  water,  very  light, 
very  dense,  and  the  selection  of  the  fibres  and  their 
treatment  call  for  special  knowledge  and  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  papermaker. 

In  addition  to  fibre,  most  papers  contain  sizing, 
sometimes  loading  or  filling.  Sizing  may  be  animal 
or  vegetable,  the  animal  size  being  gelatine  or  glue 
obtained  from  various  animal  substances,  and  the 
vegetable  size  being  made  of  a combination  of  resin 
with  soda.  Alum  is  used  to  assist  in  fixing  the  size 
in  the  paper.  Mineral  matters  are  employed  for  filling 
or  loading  ; china  clay  is  the  principal,  others  being 
barium  sulphate  (barytes,  blanc  fixe),  calcium  sulphate 
(gypsum,  terra  alba,  annaline,  pearl  hardening,  crown 


RAW  MATERIALS 


7 


filler),  satin  white,  magnesium  silicate  (asbestine,  talc, 
agalite).  Colouring  matters  are  required  for  the 
majority  of  papers.  For  white  papers  small  quantities 
of  blue  and  red  colours  are  used,  while  for  coloured 
papers  aniline  dyes  are  employed  in  a large  variety, 
as  well  as  the  various  pigments. 


CHAPTER  II 


REDUCTION  TO  PULP 

WHATEVER  material  may  be  used  for  making  into 
paper  it  has  to  undergo  stages  of  preparation  which 
c'an  be  divided  into  removing  all  foreign  matter  and 
dirt,  reduction  to  fibrous  state,  bleaching,  beating,  and 
lastly  converting  what  is  the  pulp  into  paper.  If  the 
material  has  already  been  manufactured,  as  in  the  case 
of  rags,  ropes,  sails,  sacking,  and  other  textiles,  the  first 
process  is  somewhat  simpler  than  in  the  case  of  really 
raw  materials,  such  as  esparto,  bamboo,  or  wood.  But 
here  again  the  first  and  second  operations  may  have 
been  carried  out  before  the  papermaker  handles  the 
material,  for  wood,  esparto,  and  bamboo  are  imported 
as  pulp  boards.  In  the  case  of  esparto  the  quantity 
so  imported  is  very  small,  but  the  quantity  of  wood 
pulp  is  enormous.  It  will  be  advisable  to  take  the 
materials  in  order,  so  that  the  difference  as  well  as  the 
similarity  of  treatment  may  be  traced. 

Rags  are  purchased  already  graded.  There  are 
some  twenty  to  thirty  grades  of  rags  regularly  quoted 
in  the  market  reports,  and  the  layman  might  fancy  that 
the  papermaker  could  unpack  the  bales  and  proceed  to 
make  paper  from  these  graded  rags.  Unfortunately 
he  finds  a large  quantity  of  undesirable  material,  such 
as  silk,  wool,  buttons,  elastic,  and  dirt,  that  must  be 
removed.  First  the  rags  are  sorted,  and  cut  into 
pieces  of  uniform  size,  the  undesirable  parts  mentioned 


REDUCTION  TO  PULP 


9 


being  put  aside  as  useless,  and  the  seams  cut  open  or 
thrown  out.  Standing  at  a bench,  the  top  of  which  is 
wire  netting,  the  sorter  takes  rags  from  a pile,  and  cuts 
them  on  a scythe-like  knife  which  stands  out  obliquely 
from  the  bench.  A large  amount  of  dust  escapes 
through  the  netting,  and  the  rags  are  sorted  into  bins 
as  more  suitable  for  one  class  of  paper  than  another. 
The  rags  are  next  taken  to  the  willow  or  dusting 
machine,  where  they  are  subjected  to  violent  treatment, 
the  teeth  of  the  machine  carrying  the  rags  against  other 
teeth,  giving  them  a thorough  shaking  and  loosening 
the  dust,  which  falls  away.  As  they  are  cleaned,  the 
rags  are  taken  to  the  top  of  the  building  by  a travel- 
ling band  and  dropped  into  the  mouth  of  a boiler 
prepared  to  receive  them.  For  rags  a special  spherical 
rotary  boiler  is  employed,  and  when  a charge  has  been 
filled  in,  a definite  quantity  of  a solution  of  caustic 
soda  in  water  is  added.  The  lid  is  securely  fastened, 
steam  is  passed  in,  and  the  boiler  is  kept  rotating  slowly 
for  about  eight  hours.  When  the  dirt  in  the  rags  has 
been  thoroughly  loosened  the  rotation  is  stopped,  steam 
is  shut  off,  the  dirty  water  is  run  off,  clean  water  is 
run  in.  The  boiler  is  again  revolved,  the  rags  rinsed, 
and  then  the  lid  is  removed  and  the  boiler  emptied  by 
continuing  the  revolution. 

Next  comes  the  washing  and  breaking,  both  of 
which  may  be  carried  out  in  the  beating  engine.  The 
beating  engine,  of  the  Hollander  type,  consists  of  a 
large  vessel  with  rounded  ends,  with  a central  division 
running  down  the  length  of  the  engine.  Two  cylinders 
revolve  : one,  a very  heavy  cylinder  known  as  the  beat- 
ing roll,  reaches  to  the  bottom  of  the  engine  and  bears 
a number  of  knives  on  its  surface,  which  knives,  in 
conjunction  with  a bedplate  also  bearing  knives,  break 
the  rags  into  smaller  fragments  and  open  the  threads, 


IO 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


loosening  the  fibres,  and  allowing  dirt  to  come  away. 
The  second  and  smaller  cylinder  is  employed  as  a 
washing  drum.  It  is  covered  with  wire  gauze,  through 
which  the  water  passes,  and  as  the  drum  revolves  the 
dirty  water  passes  into  the  interior,  where  a number  of 
bucket  compartments  carry  the  water  and  pass  it 
through  the  axis  of  the  drum  to  the  waste  pipe. 
When  the  rags  are  filled  into  the  beating  engine  clean 
water  is  run  in,  the  beating  roll  is  kept  out  of  contact 


Fig.  i. — Beating  Engine,  with  covers  partially  removed  to  show 
interiors  of  Beating  Roll  and  Washing  Drum. 

with  the  bottom  knives,  and  the  rags  are  kept  in 
circulation.  The  washing  cylinder  is  in  action,  and 
the  roll  being  gradually  lowered  the  dirt  is  eliminated. 
When  this  stage  is  reached  the  washing  drum  is  lifted, 
the  beating  roll  lowered,  and  the  rags  are  gradually 
reduced  in  size  until  they  attain  a state  of  fibrous  pulp, 
being  known  technically  as  “ half-stuff.”  In  most 
instances  the  next  process  is  bleaching.  There  are 
special  drawing  papers,  of  which  “ O.W.”  and  “ Un- 
bleached Arnold  ” are  examples,  which  are  the  colour  of 
the  original  rags,  no  bleaching  having  taken  place.  But 


REDUCTION  TO  PULP 


I 


usually  a weak  solution  of  bleaching  powder  (chloride 
of  lime)  is  let  into  the  engine  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  pulp.  When  the  bleach  is  thoroughly 
incorporated  the  half-stuff  is  let  down  into  large 
tanks,  made  of  stoneware  or  cement,  having  perforated 
bottoms,  and  there  the  bleach  completes  its  task,  and 
the  pulp  is  allowed  to  drain. 

Next  comes  the  beating,  at  which  stage  the  blend- 
ing of  different  fibres  may  take  place.  The  object  of 
beating  is  to  reduce  the  bleached  pulp  to  fibres,  and  to 
reduce  the  length  of  the  fibre  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  paper  to  be  made.  The  rags  are 
chosen  according  to  the  class  of  paper  desired — softer 
rags  for  soft  papers,  and,  of  course,  stronger  rags  for  strong 
papers.  For  blottings,  filter  papers,  and  lithographic 
papers,  soft  rags,  sharp  beater  knives,  quick  beating  are 
adopted.  For  dense,  hard  papers,  such  as  ledger,  type- 
writing, bank,  imitation  parchment  papers,  duller  knives, 
slow  beating,  with  a gradual  lowering  of  the  beater  roll 
is  the  order.  The  normal  time  for  beating  the  pulp  for 
an  ordinary  rag  paper  may  be  taken  as  eight  hours. 

To  take  the  next  material,  esparto,  and  to  follow  it 
in  the  same  way.  Esparto  arrives  in  bales,  fastened 
either  with  ropes  of  esparto  or  with  iron  bands.  Esparto 
travels  through  the  mill  in  the  same  way  as  rags,  that 
is,  from  the  ground  floor,  where  it  is  unpacked  and 
dusted,  upwards  by  means  of  a series  of  claws,  along 
a travelling  band  where  pickers  remove  foreign  sub- 
stances. In  its  travel  broken  fibres  and  dirt  escape,  and 
the  grass  arrives  at  the  mouth  of  an  upright  cylindrical 
boiler,  stationary,  and  so  arranged  that  the  boiling 
liquor  is  vomited  over  the  mass  of  esparto.  The  boiler 
is  filled,  and  a fairly  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  is 
run  in,  the  manhole  is  fastened  down,  and  steam  under 
pressure  introduced.  After  several  hours  boiling  the 


12 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


siliceous  and  waxy  substances  taken  up  by  the  growing 
plant  are  dissolved,  the  dirty  water  is  run  out,  small 
quantities  of  clean  water  let  in  to  wash  out  as  much 
soda  as  possible.  Most  of  the  soda  is  recovered,  but 
that  process,  though  of  great  importance  to  the  paper- 
maker,  need  not  be  treated  here.  The  washed  esparto 
is  conveyed  to  the  breaking  engine  for  treatment  similar 


Fig.  2. — Edge  Runner  or  Kollergang. 


to  that  given  to  rags,  being  washed,  broken,  and  bleached. 
In  many  mills  the  half-stuff  is  carried  over  strainers, 
and  by  the  use  of  the  presse-pate  machine  (a  paper- 
making machine  with  only  a “ wet  end  ”)  made  into 
sheets.  The  half-stuff  in  sheets  is  filled  into  trucks 
and  stored  or  taken  direct  to  the  beaters.  Owing  to 
the  small  dimensions  of  esparto  the  reduction  to  the 
fibrous  state  is  easily  accomplished,  and  very  little 
beating  is  necessary. 


REDUCTION  TO  PULP 


3 


Wood,  chemical  or  mechanical,  usually  finds  its  way 
to  the  paper  mills  in  the  form  of  pulp  boards,  arid  is 
known  as  chemical  or  mechanical  wood  pulp.  No 
boiling  is  necessary,  but  the  boards  are  fed  into  the 
breaking  engine,  and  reduced  to  half-stuff,  a little  bleach 
liquor  added  to  chemical  wood,  and  the  contents  of 
the  engine,  when  sufficiently  reduced,  are  let  down  to 
the  draining  tanks  for  the  bleach  to  expend  itself. 
Then  the  pulp  is  ready  for  the  beating  engine,  where  it 
is  reduced  to  the  necessary  degree  of  fineness. 

Some  materials  are  more  effectively  reduced  to 
pulp  in  the  edge  runner  or  kollergang.  This  machine 
is  similar  in  appearance  to  a mortar  mill,  but  the 
arrangement  is  slightly  different.  The  pan  of  the 
machine  is  stationary,  and  the  stones  revolve  and  travel 
round  the  pan.  Only  a small  quantity  of  water  is  used 
with  the  pulp,  and  waste  papers  which  require  rubbing 
apart  only,  and  strong  wood  pulps  of  which  the  fibres 
are  drawn  out,  and  not  in  any  way  reduced  in  length, 
are  treated  in  this  machine  more  economically  and 
more  effectively  than  in  the  beating  engine. 


CHAPTER  III 


MANUFACTURE  OF  HAND-MADE 
AND  MOULD  MADE  PAPERS 

ENGLISH  hand-made  paper  is  still  looked  upon  as 
the  best  paper  obtainable.  Some  fourteen  firms  still 
make  paper  by  hand,  and  although  the  number  does 
not  increase,  there  is  no  sign  of  its  diminution.  The 
reduction  of  the  rags  to  fibre  was  treated  in  the 
last  chapter.  Before  leaving  the  beating  engine  the 
colouring  matter  is  added  ; in  the  case  of  a white 
paper  a small  amount  of  blue  is  necessary  to  counter- 
act the  grey  appearance  which  the  natural  pulp 
usually  assumes.  This  is  merely  equivalent  to  the 
blueing  which  is  resorted  to  for  giving  linen  a bright 
appearance,  and  is  not  sufficient  to  tint  the  paper.  If 
the  paper  is  to  be  blue  laid,  azure,  or  yellow  wove, 
smalts  is  the  colouring  matter  used.  This  is  an  in- 
destructible blue,  being  cobalt  glass  reduced  to  ex- 
tremely fine  powder,  and  is  used  for  the  highest  grades 
of  papers,  but  many  hand-made  papers  will  be  found 
to  be  coloured  with  ultramarine,  which  is  a very  good 
blue,  but  not  quite  so  durable  as  smalts.  Coloured 
papers  require  different  additions,  some  in  the  form  of 
powders  or  dry  colours,  others  in  chemical  solutions, 
which  by  combination  produce  the  desired  colour  in 
the  pulp.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  the  pulp  is  let 
down  to  the  stuff  chests  and  kept  in  constant  motion 
by  revolving  paddles.  The  vat  at  which  the  paper- 


14 


MANUFACTURE  OF  HAND-MADE  PAPERS 


5 


maker — the  vatman — stands  is  kept  supplied  with 
pulp,  diluted  to  a regular  consistency,  kept  in  motion 
by  an  agitator,  and  a constant  temperature  is  main- 
tained. The  mould  used  is  a wooden  frame,  strengthened 
by  ribs  across  its  width,  and  a wire  top  of  laid  or 
woven  wire.  In  the  case  of  laid  papers  the  wires  are 
laid  side  by  side,  tying  wires  about  an  inch  apart  are 
superimposed,  and  fastened  to  the  laid  wires  by  very 
fine  brass  wire.  These  wires  make  an  indelible  im- 
pression upon  all  paper  made  upon  the  mould,  and 
distinguish  laid  from  wove  papers,  the  latter  being 
made  upon  a woven  wire 
mould.  Watermarks  are 
the  results  of  designs  in 
reverse  fastened  to  the 
mould,  the  design  being 
formed  with  wire  upon 
the  mould,  or  else  an 
electrotyped  mark  is  sol- 
dered to  the  mould. 

Watermarks  may  be 
simply  small  designs  or 
lettering,  or  they  may 
take  the  form  of  elaborate  pictorial  designs,  but  their 
purpose  is  to  add  distinction  to  the  paper,  and  in 
some  cases  to  prevent  forgery  of  valuable  notes  or 
documents.  Upon  the  mould  is  laid  an  open  frame, 
known  as  the  deckle,  which  serves  to  confine  the 
pulp  to  the  mould.  For  all  papers  two  moulds  are 
used  in  order  to  continue  the  cycle  of  operations  un- 
interruptedly. 

The  vatman  takes  a mould,  places  the  deckle  upon 
it,  dips  the  mould  into  the  vat  of  diluted  pulp,  and  lifts 
just  the  quantity  of  pulp  necessary  for  the  weight  of 
paper  being  made.  A slight  shake  is  given  to  the 


Fig.  3. — Hand  Moulds  and  Deckle 
(Laid  and  Wove  Moulds). 


1 6 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


mould,  a small  side  shake  and  a greater  shake  back- 
wards and  forwards,  something  like  the  shake  given  to 
a type  case,  but  less  violent,  the  object  being  to  cause 
the  individual  fibres  to  cross  and  felt  together.  The 
mould  is  kept  perfectly  level,  or  the  sheets  are  thinner 
at  one  edge  than  at  the  others,  the  mould  is  pushed 


Fig.  4.— Method  of  Making  Small  Sheets  on  Hand  Mould. 


along  a support  by  the  side  of  the  vat,  the  deckle 
removed,  and  the  operations  of  moulding  repeated  with 
the  second  mould. 

The  coucher  who  places  the  paper  upon  the  felts 
ready  for  pressing,  or  couching,  stands  to  the  left  of 
and  facing  the  vatman.  He  takes  the  mould,  stands 
it  at  an  angle  to  drain,  and  places  the  mould  face 
downwards  upon  a felt ; the  paper  remains  on  the  felt, 


MANUFACTURE  OF  HAND-MADE  PAPERS  1 7 

and  the  mould  is  returned  to  the  vatman.  The  felts 
are  woollen  cloths  of  close  texture,  resembling  that  of 
machine  blankets,  and  are  larger  than  the  paper  placed 
upon  them. 

Upon  each  sheet  of  paper  a third  worker  places 
a felt,  and  the  papermaking  proceeds.  When  the  pile 
of  felts  and  paper  is  sufficiently  high,  it  is  transferred 
to  a hydraulic  press,  and  considerable  pressure  is 
applied  in  order  to  remove  as  much  water  as  possible 
by  squeezing,  and,  more  important,  to  couch  or  press 
the  fibres  together  and  to  close  the  sheets.  The  pile 
is  removed,  the  felts  taken  out,  the  pile  of  paper  given 
further  pressing,  and  for  some  papers  the  paper  is 
turned,  rebuilt,  and  pressed  again,  to  improve  the  close- 
ness of  the  sheets.  The  paper  is  then  taken  to  the 
drying  loft,  hung  on  ropes  of  cow  hair,  which  material 
possesses  the  virtue  of  making  no  marks  or  stains 
upon  the  tender  paper.  Loft-drying  is  carried  on 
at  an  even  temperature,  in  order  to  permit  of  even 
shrinkage  of  the  sheets.  At  this  stage  the  paper, 
which  is  unsized,  is  known  as  waterleaf,  and  unless 
it  is  to  be  used  in  the  unsized  state,  requires  further 
treatment,  as  described  in  the  next  chapter,  before 
being  ready  for  use. 

Mould-made  papers  are  made  by  machine  as  far  as 
making  the  sheets  is  concerned,  other  operations  being 
carried  out  as  for  hand-made  papers.  The  moulding  or 
forming  of  the  sheet  is  carried  out  in  different  ways  on 
different  machines,  but  the  construction  of  the  machines 
being  kept  secret  by  their  users,  it  is  not  possible  to 
give  a description  here. 


2 


CHAPTER  IV 


PAPERMAKING  BY  MACHINE 

The  Fourdrinier  machine  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
hand  mould  that  the  rotary  press  does  to  the  hand 
press.  Instead  of  making  paper  sheet  by  sheet,  it 
makes  it  in  a continuous  web,  on  an  endless  band  of 
woven  wire.  The  machine  in  a much  simpler  form  was 
invented  by  a Frenchman,  Nicholas  Robert,  the  first 
machine  being  made  in  1799,  and  so  rapidly  did  the 
machine  find  favour  that  in  fifty  years  over  150  paper- 
making machines  were  at  work. 

Papermaking  by  hand  involves  the  processes  of 
transferring  a certain  and  regular  quantity  of  pulp  from 
the  vat  to  the  mould,  shaking  the  mould  to  felt  the 
fibres  and  to  remove  the  water,  couching  the  paper  and 
drying  the  waterleaf.  Machine-made  paper  follows  the 
same  processes  exactly,  everything  being  done  by  the 
one  machine,  including  sizing.  Viewing  the  paper- 
making machine,  it  appears  to  be  a collection  of 
machines  carrying  out  the  separate  functions  in  proper 
sequence.  The  different  parts  of  the  machine  can  be 
controlled  and  driven  at  different  speeds  for  special 
reasons.  Thus  a definite  and  regular  quantity  of  pulp 
is  taken,  shaken,  the  water  removed,  the  soft  paper 
couched,  pressed,  dried,  and  a finish  given  to  the  surface 
of  the  paper,  all  in  the  compass  of  the  one  machine. 

The  pulp  as  left  at  the  end  of  Chapter  II.  was 
merely  beaten  fibre,  and  if  an  unsized  paper  were 

18 


PAPERMAKING  BY  MACHINE 


19 


I 


Fig.  5. — Diagram  showing  elevation  of  Papermaking  Machine.  Shown  in  Sections. 
Total  length  of  machine  144  feet. 

(Built  by  Bertrams  Limited,  Sciennes,  Edinburgh.) 


20 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


required  the  pulp  would  be  let  down  to  the  stuff-chest ; 
but  usually  other  things  are  added  before  the  pulp  is 
ready  for  the  machine.  Filling  or  loading,  colouring 
matter  and  sizing  material,  are  mixed  with  the  pulp, 
thoroughly  incorporated,  and  then  the  engine  is  emptied. 

Paper  can  be  made  without  filling  or  loading  ; in 
fact  all-rag  papers  seldom  contain  mineral  matter,  and 
many  excellent  papers  are  made  from  other  fibres  with- 
out loading.  The  purposes  of  loading  are  to  fill  the 
spaces  between  the  fibres,  to  give  opacity  to  papers, 
such  as  those  made  of  sulphite  wood  pulp,  which  would 
otherwise  be  very  transparent,  and  to  enable  the  paper 
to  take  a higher  finish  than  would  be  possible  in  a 
paper  without  loading  : a smoother  and  more  absorb- 
ent, even  if  a little  weaker,  sheet  resulting.  In  a 
blotting  paper  mineral  matter  is  an  adulteration  ; in 
writing  papers  5 per  cent,  is  sufficient  for  improve- 
ment of  surface ; in  printings  10  to  16  per  cent,  is 
as  much  as  is  permissible.  In  an  imitation  art  paper 
as  much  as  25  per  cent,  may  be  added,  and  yet  a 
serviceable  paper  result  ; but  of  course  the  tenderness 
of  imitation  art  paper  will  be  present. 

China  clay  is  the  usual  material  used  for  filling  or 
loading.  It  is  mixed  with  water,  and  strained  before 
filling  into  the  beating  engine,  and  the  colour  is  added, 
either  to  produce  a coloured  paper,  or  to  correct  the 
tendency  to  greyness  in  the  finished  paper.  In  the 
latter  case,  a little  blue  and  perhaps  a little  red  is 
added,  while  in  the  former  case  the  colour  may  be 
added,  or  formed  in  situ  by  the  mixture  of  different 
chemicals  in  the  beating  engine.  Dry  colours,  whether 
pigment  as  ultramarine  or  aniline  colours,  are  mixed 
with  water  (dry  patches  being  difficult  to  deal  with  in 
the  pulp),  and  then  added  to  the  pulp  in  the  engine  ; 
when  the  colours  are  thoroughly  mixed,  alum  is  put 


PAPERMAKING  BY  MACHINE 


21 


in.  Alum  serves  to  mordant  or  fix  the  colour,  and  also 
serves  to  precipitate  the  resin  size  which  is  next  added. 

There  are  various  prepared  sizes  on  the  market  to 
take  the  place  of  the  size  prepared  by  the  papermaker 
from  resin  and  a solution  of  soda.  The  resin  is  melted 
and  added  to  the  soda  solution,  and  boiled  until  the 
solution  is  complete.  The  size  solution  is  added  to  the 
pulp  in  the  beating  engine,  and  thus  we  get  a clue  to 
the  meaning  of  E.S.,  or  engine-sized  paper. 

The  pulp  now  consists  of  innumerable  fibres,  to 
which  and  in  which  are  fixed  small  particles  of  china 
clay,  colouring  matter,  and  resin.  In  many  writing 
papers  a small  amount  of  starch  paste  is  added,  and 
that  also  adheres  to  the  tiny  fibres.  The  engine  is 
emptied  by  gravity  into  the  stuff- chest,  where  the 
revolving  arms  keep  the  fibres  in  the  mixture  from 
precipitation.  Then  there  is  a short  journey  to  the 
machine,  during  which  the  pulp  undergoes  great  tribu- 
lation, first  being  diluted  with  a large  quantity  of  water, 
then  passing  over  sand  traps  which  intercept  grit, 
metallic  fragments,  and  such  matter  that  is  heavier  than 
the  pulp  and  so  tends  to  sink,  and  then  through  strainers, 
which  retain  foreign  matter,  unbeaten  particles,  and 
knots  of  fibre.  The  flow  of  pulp  is  governed  by  a 
system  of  valves,  which  can  be  quickly  manipulated  to 
alter  the  substance  of  the  resulting  paper. 

The  wet  end  of  the  machine  consists  of  an  endless 
band  of  woven  wire,  some  40  to  80  meshes  to  the  inch, 
from  48  to  205  inches  wide,  and  a total  length  of 
40  feet  or  more.  The  length  of  wire  in  use  at  one  time 
as  a paper  mould  is  less  than  half  its  total  length.  This 
woven  wire  corresponds  to  the  mould  of  the  vatman  in 
hand-making.  Deckle  straps,  the  substitutes  for  the 
vatman’s  deckle,  are  thick  endless  rubber  bands,  square 
in  section,  which  rest  on  the  wire  cloth,  and,  following 


22 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


the  travel  of  the  wire,  return  over  pulleys,  serving  the 
same  purpose  as  the  deckle,  namely,  to  confine  the  pulp 
to  the  wire  surface.  The  wire  cloth  is  supported  by  a 
number  of  rollers — tube  rolls — which  keep  the  wire  from 
oscillating,  and  assist  the  passage  of  the  water  through 
the  wire.  The  end  of  the  wire  nearest  the  stuff-chest 
is  kept  shaking  backwards  and  forwards  to  cause  the 


Fig.  6. — Front  View  from  Strainers  of  94-inch  Papermaking 
Machine. 

(Built  by  Bertrams  Limited,  Sciennes,  Edinburgh.) 


fibres  to  felt  before  the  water  has  passed  through  the 
wire.  The  pulp  passes  from  the  strainers  under  a slice, 
which  distributes  the  pulp  evenly,  over  a rubber  apron, 
on  to  the  machine  wire,  and  near  the  end  of  the  wire 
will  be  seen  a cylinder  of  wire  above,  and  square  boxes 
below  the  wire. 


PAPERMAKING  BY  MACHINE 


23 


The  cylinder  is  the  dandy  roll,  which  closes  the 
surface  of  the  paper  with  slight  pressure,  and  if  a water- 
mark is  required  the  soft  pulp  is  impressed  with  the 
design  upon  the  surface  of  the  roll.  If  the  paper  is  to 
be  “ laid  ” the  cylinder  will  be  covered  with  laid  wires, 
with  tying  wires  at  regular  intervals,  but  a wove  paper 
has  a woven  dandy  roll  which  leaves  no  mark  beyond 
any  watermark  that  may  be  on  its  surface.  A dandy 
roll  on  which  the  tying  wires  run  the  length  of  the  roll 
instead  of  round  the  circumference  is  known  as  a spiral 
laid  dandy  roll. 

The  boxes  beneath  the  wire  are  suction  boxes, 
open  mouth  of  pumps  which  suck  the  remaining  water 
from  the  paper.  The  wet  end  is  well  named,  as  for 
every  ton  of  paper  nearly  20,000  gallons  of  water  are 
used  for  the  dilution  of  the  pulp,  so  that  it  may  flow 
evenly  and  regularly.  This  water  passes  through  the 
wire,  most  of  it  falling  into  the  save-all  and  is  used  again 
for  diluting  the  pulp. 

Passing  under  the  dandy  roll  and  over  the  last 
suction  box,  the  wire  carries  the  web  of  paper  through 
the  couch  rolls,  where  the  paper  is  couched  or  pressed 
by  a felt-covered  roll  for  the  same  reason  as  hand- 
made papers  are  couched  : to  consolidate  the  paper. 
The  wire  returns  to  perform  its  operations  continuously, 
and  the  limp  paper  is  carried  forward  to  the  press 
rolls,  where  it  is  further  pressed  by  polished  rollers, 
first  one  side,  then  the  other,  to  remove  the  wire 
and  felt  marks.  Then  the  paper  goes  forward  to  the 
drying  cylinders — massive  rolls  heated  by  interior 
steam  ; but  the  heat  is  so  regulated  that  it  is  gradually 
increased,  and  the  speed  at  which  the  web  of  paper 
travels  is  arranged  so  that  no  undue  tension  is  placed 
upon  the  paper,  or  thinning  might  result,  or  the  web  be 
broken,  and  delay  caused.  The  drying  section  of  the 


Fig.  7. — End  of  Wove  Dandy  Roll. 


Fig.  8. — End  of  Laid  Dandy  Roll. 


Fig.  9. — End  of  Spiral  Laid  Dandy  Roll. 


24 


PAPERMAKING  BY  MACHINE 


25 


machine  is  a very  quiet  place  compared  with  the  wet 
end. 

At  the  end  of  the  machine  are  stacks  of  rolls 
through  which  the  paper  is  led  if  it  is  to  receive  what 
is  known  as  “ machine  finish.”  If,  however,  the  paper 
is  to  be  super-calendered,  it  is  led  past  one  or  more  of 
the  stacks  of  rolls,  and  as  it  is  reeled  off  a fine  spray 
of  water  is  projected  upon  the  paper.  There  are 
various  means  of  producing  a misty  cloud,  but  the 
object  is  the  same  in  every  case,  to  restore  some  of 
the  moisture  which  has  been  driven  off,  and  to  prepare 
the  paper  to  receive  the  finish  at  the  super-calenders. 
If  the  paper  were  finished  bone  dry  it  would  not  be 
possible  to  impart  the  required  surface  by  super- 
calendering, and,  too,  the  paper  would  at  the  first 
opportunity  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
various  troubles  would  arise.  The  paper,  now  reeled, 
is  ready  for  the  finishing  department,  to  which  the  next 
chapter  is  devoted. 

Papermaking  on  the  Yankee  or  single  cylinder 
machine  is  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  on  the 
ordinary  or  F'ourdrinier  machine  as  far  as  the  wet  end 
is  concerned,  but  the  series  of  drying  cylinders  is 
replaced  by  a single  cylinder  of  large  diameter,  as  much 
as  1 o feet  in  some  instances  : the  paper  passing  round 
this  heated  cylinder  is  dried,  and  glazed  on  one  side, 
hence  the  term  M.G.,  or  machine-glazed  paper. 

Mill  numbers  survive  from  the  time  when  all  mills 
were  registered,  and  when  paper  was  a dutiable  article. 
The  duty  was  repealed  in  1861,  but  the  mill  numbers 
remain,  and  are  additional  to  watermarks  in  distinguish- 
ing between  papers  of  the  various  makers. 

Watermarks  have  been  used  from  very  early  times 
to  serve  as  marks  of  distinction.  The  watermark  used 
by  John  Tate  of  Stevenage  in  1494  was  an  eight- 


2 6 


Fig.  io. — Single  Cylinder  or  Yankee  Paper  making  Machine. 


PAPERMAKING  BY  MACHINE 


27 


petalled  flower.  The  cap  and  bells,  post  horn,  crown, 
fleur-de-lis,  and  tankard  have  been  associated  with 
foolscap,  post,  crown,  royal,  and  pott  respectively,  but 
the  connection  between  size  and  watermark  is  not  very 
close.  At  present  foolscap  papers  frequently  bear  the 
figure  of  Britannia,  and  royal  papers  a shield,  with  bend 
sinister,  surmounted  by  the  fleur-de-lis.  The  register 
of  watermarks  consists  of  a large  number  of  names 
which  are  intended  to  make  the  papers  bearing  them 
proprietary  articles,  and  as  the  quality  of  the  paper  is 
maintained  by  the  papermaker,  there  is  almost  an 
indirect  virtue  in  watermarks.  Special  watermarks  are 
sometimes  designed  for  special  editions  or  for  paper  for 
special  purposes,  the  dandy  roll  being  made  in  length 
and  diameter  to  suit  the  size  of  the  paper  to  be  made. 
Watermarks  on  hand  moulds  are  placed  in  position  on 
the  moulds,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  cutting  the 
paper  to  obtain  register  of  the  marks,  as  in  the  case 
of  machine-made  papers. 


CHAPTER  V 


FINISHING 

PAPERS  which  have  reached  the  stage  described  in 
Chapters  III.  and  IV.  still  have  much  to  be  done  to 
them  before  the  consumer,  stationer,  or  printer  can 
receive  them.  Finishing  varies  with  different  papers. 
Hand-made  paper  requires  sizing,  drying,  glazing,  sort- 
ing, counting  (sometimes  cutting),  and  packing  before 
it  is  ready  for  despatch.  If  the  machine-made  paper 
is  for  writing,  it  may  be  gelatine  sized,  followed  by 
drying,  re-reeling,  glazing,  cutting  into  sheets,  sorting, 
counting,  and  packing  into  reams.  Printing  papers 
are  finished  with  “ machine  ” or  with  super-calender  or 
water  finish,  and  other  papers  with  friction-glazed  or 
flint-glazed  surfaces,  the  other  operations  following  as 
for  other  papers  after  glazing. 

Tub  sizing  always  means  animal  sizing.  Some  mills 
still  prepare  their  gelatine  from  hide  cuttings,  parchment 
cuttings,  and  other  materials  which  yield  gelatine,  but 
the  tendency  is  to  eliminate  this  process  and  to  buy  the 
gelatine  in  sheet  form  ready  for  use  without  any  process 
other  than  reduction  to  a solution  of  such  strength  as 
is  necessary.  The  tub  or  vat  of  size  is  prepared  and 
kept  at  an  even  temperature,  the  paper  is  dipped  or 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  size,  or  there  are  machines 
which  carry  the  paper  slowly  through  the  trough  of 
gelatine.  The  size  must  permeate  the  paper  in  order 
to  make  the  sizing  effective.  On  emerging,  the  paper 


28 


FINISHING 


29 


is  squeezed  to  remove  the  excess  of  size,  and  the  sheets 
are  separated  to  prevent  the  paper  from  becoming  a 
solid  block. 

The  second  visit  to  the  drying  loft  prepares  the 
paper  for  the  last  stages  of  manufacture.  The  drying 
is  conducted  at  a moderately  low  temperature  (for 
papermakers),  not  exceeding  8o°  Fahr.,  and  when 
dry  the  paper  has  its  bulk  reduced  and  its  surface 
improved  by  plate  rolling,  unless  it  is  a drawing  paper 
with  a “ not,”  that  is,  a rough  surface.  Plate  rolling 
necessitates  building  a pile  of  paper,  alternated  with 
zinc  plates  a little  larger  than  the  paper,  unbuilding 
and  building  of  piles  proceeding  simultaneously  as  in 
the  case  of  taking  out  set-off  sheets  and  interleaving 
newly  printed  work.  One  girl  takes  the  glazed  paper, 
a second  removes  the  plates,  a third  feeds  the  unglazed 
paper  to  the  plates.  When  the  pile  is  high  enough  it 
is  lifted  to  the  pressing  rolls  by  a man  who  feeds  it 
between  the  rollers,  where  great  pressure  is  given,  and 
the  pile  automatically  returns  to  the  front  of  the 
machine,  and  it  is  turned  and  placed  for  pressing  the 
other  way  of  the  sheet.  From  two  to  a dozen  pressings 
will  be  given  according  to  the  degree  of  finish  required, 
and  also  to  the  hardness  of  the  material. 

Sorting,  counting,  and  packing  will  complete  the 
cycle  of  operations  included  in  finishing,  unless  cutting 
to  size  is  also  necessary.  Girls  stand  at  long  benches 
lighted  with  large  windows,  and  have  piles  of  paper 
before  them  for  sorting  into  three  classes — good, 
middling,  bad — according  to  the  degree  or  absence  of 
defects.  The  middling  paper  showing  slight  defects 
is  known  as  “ retree,”  the  reams  are  marked  x x , and 
the  paper  is  sold  at  10  per  cent,  reduction  on  the  price 
for  good  paper.  Bad  paper,  showing  glaring  defects,  is 
called  “ broke,”  the  reams  are  marked  x x x , and  it  is 


30 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


either  sold  at  a further  reduction  or  is  returned  to  be 
repulped.  If  the  order  is  for  specially  watermarked 
paper,  or  is  for  all  “ insides  ” or  good  paper,  the  “ re- 
tree ” and  “ broke  ” will  both  return  for  re-making. 

Machine-made  writing  papers  which  are  to  be 
sized  with  gelatine  are  usually  first  sized  with  resin,  so 
do  not  come  forward  as  waterleaf.  The  sizing  room  is 
long,  high,  comparatively  narrow,  containing  a small 
sizing  machine  and  numerous  drying  cylinders.  The 
reel  of  paper  is  mounted  on  brackets  in  front  of  the 
sizing  trough,  the  web  passes  between  metal  rollers,  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  warm  size,  out  and  between 
squeezing  rolls  which  remove  the  excess  of  gelatine, 
and  then  forward  for  drying.  Up  to  the  roof,  and  down 
to  the  floor,  over  skeleton  drums,  the  web  of  paper  travels 
until  it  is  thoroughly  dried,  in  a temperature  equal 
to  that  of  the  drying  lofts.  At  the  end  of  the  room 
the  paper  is  reeled  again,  and  when  in  a fit  state  goes 
either  to  the  super-calenders,  or,  if  the  paper  is  to 
be  plate-rolled,  it  is  cut  and  the  surface  imparted  as 
described  for  hand-made  papers. 

Papers  which  are  merely  to  have  “ machine-finish,” 
that  is,  the  surface  imparted  by  the  calenders  of  the 
paper  machine,  receive  no  further  treatment  before 
being  cut  into  sheets.  Those  papers  which  are  to 
be  super-calendered  (S.C.)  pass  through  a large  super- 
calendering machine,  consisting  of  a number  of  chilled 
iron  rolls  and  rolls  of  compressed  cotton  or  paper 
alternately.  The  weight  of  the  rolls  is  enormous, 
and  although  extra  pressure  can  be  applied,  it  is  not 
often  necessary.  A very  high  degree  of  finish  can 
be  given  by  means  of  the  super-calenders,  and  the 
majority  of  papers  with  a glazed  finish  have  passed 
through  this  machine. 

Papers  which  are  to  receive  a water  finish  are 


FINISHING 


31 


given  a film  of  water  on  the  surface  just  before  the 
web  passes  between  the  rolls  of  the  super-calender,  and 


Fig.  11. — Web  Glazing  Calender  or  Super-Calender. 

(Built  by  Bertrams  Limited,  Sciennes,  Edinburgh.) 

as  a result  the  mineral  constituent  of  the  paper  is 
brought  to  the  surface,  and  a very  level  finish,  with 
a high  degree  of  polish,  is  imparted  to  the  paper. 


32 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Friction  glazing  produces  a higher  polish  than 
the  processes  already  described.  The  machine  is 
simple  in  construction,  consisting  of  a pile  of  three 
rolls,  one  of  cotton  between  two  of  steel.  The  paper 
passes  between  two  only,  and  the  top  roll,  being  driven 
at  a higher  speed  than  the  others,  burnishes  the  side  of 
the  paper  against  which  it  is  driven  in  a much  more 
effective  manner  than  the  super-calenders. 

Flint-glazed  papers  are  actually  burnished  by  the 
surface  of  a stone  passing  rapidly  backwards  and 
forwards  on  the  surface  of  the  paper  as  it  emerges 
from  the  rolls,  giving  a hard  brilliant  polish.  The  same 
degree  of  finish  is  imparted  to  some  papers  by  the  use 
of  a number  of  brushes  oscillating  rapidly  upon  the 
paper  as  it  travels  over  a large  cylinder. 

Cutting  the  reels  into  smaller  widths  and  then  into 
single  sheets  is  the  function  of  a number  of  ingenious 
machines.  If  a watermarked  paper  is  to  be  cut  to 
register,  a single  reel  is  mounted  at  the  cutting  machine, 
and  the  web  is  advanced  the  necessary  distance  and 
the  division  into  sheets  takes  place  by  a knife.  A boy 
watches  the  travel  of  the  paper,  and  when  the  water- 
mark travels  beyond  or  short  of  a pointer,  a turn  of 
a screw  brings  the  next  sheet  into  register.  Single 
sheet  cutters  are  used  for  other  papers,  the  reel  is 
mounted,  run  forward  between  slitting  knives,  and  a 
swinging  knife  divides  the  paper  into  sheets.  Another 
make  of  machine  will  take  from  one  to  seven  reels,  and 
the  paper  passing  between  the  slitters  is  cut  into  sheets 
by  a revolving  cutter,  which  makes  a clean  cut  the 
whole  width  of  the  web,  and  the  sheets  are  dropped  on 
a travelling  felt,  carried  forward  to  the  front  of  the 
machine,  and  knocked  up  by  boys  or  girls.  An 
automatic  “ layer  ” replaces  the  boys  in  some  mills, 
keeping  the  piles  knocked  up.  To  prevent  waste  in 


FINISHING 


33 


cutting  out  blanks,  envelope  papers  are  cut  at  an 
angle,  this  being  accomplished  by  swinging  the  frame 
carrying  the  revolving  knife  to  the  desired  angle,  and 
the  papers  are  delivered  in  sheets  ready  for  the 
envelope  maker. 

From  the  cutting  machines  the  paper  is  taken  to 
the  “ salle  — the  sorting  and  packing  room  of  the 
paper  mill.  A number  of  girls  rapidly  examine  every 
sheet  of  paper,  withdrawing  those  sheets  which  fall 
below  the  papermaker’s  standard  of  perfection,  sorting 
into  retree  and  broke  proceeding  as  in  the  case  of 
hand-made  papers.  Counting,  cutting,  and  packing 
take  place  very  quickly  after  the  paper  is  sorted.  The 
nimble  fingers  of  the  counters  turn  up  the  edge  of  a 
quantity  of  paper,  the  fingers  of  the  other  hand  run 
down  the  edges  quickly,  counting  into  reams  with 
extraordinary  accuracy.  Some  papers  are  trimmed 
before  packing,  while  others  are  cut  from  double  to 
single  sheets.  Wrappers  are  carefully  folded  round 
the  paper,  and  fastening  is  done  by  means  of  string, 
tape,  or  paper  tape  according  to  the  size  and  weight  of 
the  reams. 

As  will  be  seen  from  “ Paper  Trade  Customs,”  on 
page  135,  the  number  of  sheets  to  the  ream  is  a vary- 
ing quantity.  A ream  may  consist  of  472,  480,  500, 
5 04  or  516  sheets. 

In  hand-made  papers  a mill  ream  consists  of  two 
qualities  of  the  same  paper,  whether  the  paper  is  bought 
as  good  or  retree.  If  the  paper  is  good  it  will  consist 
of  18  quires  of  insides  or  best  paper,  each  quire 
containing  24  sheets,  and  two  quires  of  outsides  or 
slightly  inferior  paper,  the  quires  containing  20  sheets 
each.  “ Retree  ” paper  is  marked  on  the  outside  by 
two  crosses  x x , and  the  mill  ream  will  be  472  sheets, 
whether  the  paper  be  good  or  retree.  The  price  of 

3 


34 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


a ream  of  insides  is  usually  io  per  cent,  above  the 
price  for  a mill  ream. 

Machine-made  paper  is  good,  retree,  and  outsides, 
the  prices  being  io  and  20  per  cent,  less  for  the  second 
and  third  qualities  respectively.  Paper  is  usually 
supplied  in  inside  reams  of  480  sheets,  that  is,  all  good 
paper,  but  the  papermaker  may  supply  mill  reams  of 
480  sheets,  but  with  a quire  of  outsides  at  the  top  and 
bottom.  The  ream  of  480  sheets  is  also  known  as 
the  stationer’s  ream — writing,  drawing,  cartridge,  and 
fancy  papers  being  packed  in  that  quantity.  Paper 
classed  as  news  is  packed  in  500’s,  envelope  papers  in 
504’s,  and  many  printing  papers  in  perfect  or  printer’s 
reams  of  5 1 6 sheets. 

The  variety  of  reams  suggests  that  it  might  be  well 
to  move  for  a standard  ream  of  500  sheets.  The 
present  system  makes  for  confusion  in  giving  out 
paper,  keeping  stock,  estimating  and  pricing  out,  and  a 
simplification  should  be  welcomed. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MANUFACTURE  OF  BOARDS 

The  manufacture  of  boards  is  varied,  ranging  from 
Bristol  boards  to  millboards,  and  including  ivory 
boards,  pasteboards,  triplex  boards,  strawboards,  and 
pulp  boards. 

For  pulp  boards  the  description  of  papermaking 
will  serve  in  its  entirety,  as  the  boards  are  made  on  the 
Fourdrinier,  being  engine-sized,  reeled  at  the  end  of  the 
machine,  well  rolled  later,  cut  into  sheets,  sometimes 
plate-glazed  after  this,  and  then  sorted  and  packed. 
There  is  one  point  of  variation  only,  and  that  is 
in  speed.  As  there  is  much  more  “stuff”  let  down  to 
the  wire,  a greater  thickness  of  material  for  the  water 
to  drain  from  demands  more  time,  and  so  the  output 
is  relatively  slower  than  when  paper  is  being  made. 

For  ivory  boards,  two  or  more  sheets  of  fine  paper 
made  on  a Fourdrinier,  or  else  on  a cylinder  machine, 
are  brought  together  at  the  couch  rolls,  and  the  sheets 
are  pressed  and  rolled  together  without  the  use  of 
paste. 

Cylinder  machines  are  invariably  used  for  duplex, 
triplex,  and  boards  of  several  layers  other  than  paste 
boards  and  those  already  described.  Instead  of  a 
travelling  wire,  a wire-covered  cylinder  is  the  means  of 
forming  the  film  of  pulp.  The  cylinder  revolves  in  a 
vat  of  pulp,  takes  up  a thin  layer  of  the  fibre,  and, 
pressing  against  a travelling  felt,  leaves  its  film  of 


35 


36 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


paper,  and  as  there  are  several  cylinders,  each  in  its 
own  vat,  producing  paper  in  the  same  way,  the  several 
webs  are  brought  together,  rolled,  dried,  and  reeled. 
In  the  case  of  a duplex  board  the  pulp  may  be  the 
same  colour,  or  of  two  different  shades.  In  triplex 
boards,  the  outsides  are  frequently  thin  and  different 
in  colour,  compared  with  the  middle  sheet.  Cylinder 
machines  with  as  many  as  seven  vats  are  in  use,  and 
forty  to  fifty  drying  cylinders  are  necessary  to  complete 
the  extraction  of  the  water. 

Pasteboards  are  made  up  from  middles  and  past- 
ings. These  are  obtained  from  mills  making  special- 
ities of  these  lines,  the  middles  very  often  consisting 
of  a moderately  thick  paper  of  poor  quality,  but  the 
outsides  are  of  fairly  fine  paper.  The  papers  are  not 
glazed,  but  after  pasting  together  the  web  is  thoroughly 
rolled  and  the  surface  obtained  by  subsequent  calender- 
ing. Bristol  boards  are  made  from  the  finest  materials, 
all-rag,  tub-sized  papers,  the  same  paper  throughout 
pasted,  pressed  and  surfaced  by  hot-pressing.  Other 
boards  supplied  under  this  title  are  made  of  good 
drawing  paper  for  outsides,  and  cartridge  for  middles. 
The  best  boards  are  made  by  hand,  and  take  con- 
siderable time  and  care  in  manufacture. 

Millboards,  the  thicker  kinds  of  box  boards,  slate 
boards,  leather  boards,  portmanteau  boards,  and  carriage 
panels  are  made  on  a special  board  machine.  For 
leather  boards  a large  percentage  of  pulped  leather  is 
sometimes  employed.  For  the  other  kinds  a large  variety 
of  materials  finds  its  way  to  the  machine,  but  it  is  waste 
in  the  form  of  flax,  ropes,  coarse  rags  for  the  best 
qualities,  and  for  the  lower  grades  waste  papers  of  all 
kinds.  The  stronger  materials  are  boiled  and  beaten, 
bleaching  being  unnecessary.  Waste  papers  are  simply 
steamed  and  pulped.  All  materials  are  strained,  diluted 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BOARDS 


37 


with  water,  and  forwarded  to  the  vat  Or  stuff-chest  of 
the  machine.  The  board  machine  is  comparatively 
short,  consisting  of  a cylinder  which  lifts  the  film  of 
pulp,  delivers  it  to  the  endless  felt,  and  a cylinder  at 
the  other  end  of  the  machine  receives  the  web,  which 
continues  to  roll  round  until  the  desired  thickness  is 
attained,  when  the  wet  board  is  dexterously  slit  by  the 
attendant  and  taken  off  to  the  pile.  Here  the  boards 
are  alternated  with  sheets  of  felt  or  canvas,  and  the 
water  is  pressed  out.  The  boards  are  hung  up  singly 
to  dry  in  a heated  chamber,  and  are  afterwards  damped 
slightly,  rolled  heavily,  and  cut  to  size. 


CHAPTER  VII 


WRITING  PAPERS 

A LARGE  variety  of  papers  falls  under  the  heading  of 
writing  papers  : account  book,  bank,  bond,  cheque, 

ledger,  loan,  and  typewriter  papers  being  placed  in  this 
category.  The  printer  uses  writing  papers  of  all  kinds, 
some  as  superior  printings,  and  others  he  prepares  as 
stationery,  or  prints  some  part  of  a document  upon 
them  for  subsequent  filling  in  or  completion. 

Writing  papers  must  be  smooth  and  hard-sized  to 
fulfil  their  purpose  of  bearing  writing  ink,  and  other 
qualities  will  depend  upon  the  use  for  which  they  are 
destined.  The  fibres  used  include  rag,  chemical  wood, 
esparto,  and  in  the  poorest  qualities,  which  but  few 
printers  or  stationers  will  stock,  mechanical  wood. 
Writing  papers  of  the  highest  class  are  all-rag,  tub- 
sized, air-dried,  and  plate-glazed.  Every  variety  of 
writing  paper  may  be  wove  or  laid  without  alteration 
in  quality  ; in  fact,  most  mills  make  woves  and  laids 
from  the  same  stuff,  merely  changing  the  wove  dandy 
roll  to  one  which  makes  the  laid  marks  on  the  paper. 
This  first  class  of  paper  is  used  for  the  best  stationery, 
for  printed  and  written  documents  of  the  highest 
importance  which  are  required  to  stand  a good  deal  of 
handling,  and  for  ledgers  and  similar  books  subject  to 
hard  wear.  Bank-notes  are  printed  on  hand -made 
paper,  while  the  papers  for  stamps,  cheques,  postal 
orders,  and  money  orders  are  usually  machine-made. 


WRITING  PAPERS 


39 


Bank-notes,  loans  and  banks  demand  the  use  of  the 
strongest  rags,  such  as  linen,  duck,  and  sail-cloth. 
The  fibres  are  drawn  out  rather  than  cut  up,  the  result- 
ing paper  being  hard  and  resistant  to  wear.  Bank- 
notes are  cream  wove ; banks,  cream  wove  or  blue 
wove  ; loans  are  cream  wove.  Being  hand-made  the 
sizing,  drying,  and  finishing  are  carried  out  as  described 
in  Chapter  V. 

Ledger  or  account  book  papers  may  be  hand-  or 
machine-made,  and  are  usually  azure  or  blue  laid.  If 
machine-made,  the  characteristics  of  the  hand-made 
papers  are  as  far  as  possible  retained  : strength,  hard 
tub-sized  surface,  opacity,  moderate  finish,  both  sides 
alike  in  surface.  To  attain  these  qualities  the  same 
materials  are  employed,  an  all-rag  furnish  with  a fair 
proportion  of  strong  linen,  prolonged  beating  to  draw 
out  the  fibres,  a shake  to  ensure  good  felting,  slow 
drying  to  allow  gradual  contraction,  tub-sizing,  air- 
drying over  skeleton  drums  will  attain  the  desired  end. 
The  finish  of  ledger  or  account  book  papers  is  not 
quite  so  high  as  that  for  loan  papers,  but  it  must  be 
equal  for  both  sides  of  the  sheet,  in  order  that  writing 
may  be  done  easily  on  all  pages  of  the  books.  The 
sizing  must  be  thorough,  or  the  ink  will  sink  through 
the  paper,  and  if  erasures  are  made,  the  abraded  surface 
will  not  take  ink  without  spreading. 

Machine-made  bond  or  loan  papers  are  not  always 
all-rag  papers,  and  are  not  essentially  tub-sized,  but 
the  best  of  the  class  will  be  all-rag,  tub-sized  papers. 
One  paper  mill  carries  an  enormous  stock  of  high 
class  engine-sized  bond  and  bank  papers  in  eighteen 
colours,  and  each  of  these  in  six  substances.  Bank 
papers  are  thinner  than  bonds,  the  usual  substances 
being  foolscap  7 lb.,  large  post  1 1 lb.,  medium  1 3 lb. 
Here  again  the  best  papers  are  all -rag,  tub -sized, 


40 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


and  while  a very  good  chemical  wood,  tub  - sized, 
super-calendered  bank  paper  is  obtainable,  papers  of 
the  best  quality,  such  as  “ 3009  Extra  Strong,”  always 
command  a high  price,  being  extremely  strong  and 
durable.  Typewriting  papers  are  similar  to  bank 

papers,  but  usually  have  a matt  finish  to  prevent  the 
smearing  that  may  always  take  place  on  a highly 
polished  paper,  as  the  typewritten  characters  are  not 
indented  into  the  paper,  but  the  colour  is  on  the 
surface.  Watermarked  typewriting  papers  are  well 

known,  and  the  prices  vary  according  to  the  substance 
and  fibrous  constituents  of  the  papers,  thin  papers  (8  lb. 
large  post)  costing  nearly  twice  the  price  per  pound  for 
which  16  lb.  large  post  can  be  purchased. 

Cheque  papers  are  strong,  even  in  texture,  and 

present  a good  surface  for  printing.  There  is  a fair 

range  of  papers  to  choose  from  for  cheque  printing, 
without  taking  into  consideration  safety  cheque  papers. 

As  the  same  pulp  may  be  wove  or  laid,  so  may 
the  colour  be  varied  without  changing  the  quality. 
Cream  wove,  blue  wove,  yellow  wove,  cream  laid, 
azure  laid,  blue  laid,  or  tinted  papers  may  be  made 
from  the  same  stuff,  the  colouring  matter  added  giving 
the  necessary  difference  in  tint,  the  description  of 
the  paper  varying  accordingly.  There  are,  of  course, 
certain  cases  where  one  or  other  is  preferred,  but  the 
quality  is  neither  indicated  by  the  colour  of  the  paper 
nor  by  the  pattern  of  the  dandy  roll  employed.  The 
surface  may  be  rough  (antique),  moderately  smooth 
(machine  finish,  vellum,  ivory),  or  highly  glazed  (super- 
calendered  or  plate-glazed),  each  being  attained  by  the 
different  treatment  in  finishing  the  paper.  Papers  made 
entirely  of  rag  will  always  be  tub-sized,  air-dried,  and 
frequently  plate-glazed,  but  papers  which  are  only  partly 
rag,  and  even  chemical  wood  papers,  are  sometimes  tub- 


WRITING  PAPERS 


41 


sized,  but  as  a rule  papers  which  contain  no  rag  fibre 
are  sized  in  the  pulp,  that  is,  engine-sized.  The  large 
variety  of  high-class  engine-sized  papers  now  obtainable 
is  at  once  creditable  to  the  enterprise  of  the  manu- 
facturers, and  a sign  that  papers  of  this  description 
fulfil  the  requirements  of  a large  body  of  consumers. 

A good  deal  of  writing  paper  is  used  for  printing, 
from  which  it  might  be  inferred  that  there  is  a close 
resemblance  between  printings  and  engine-sized  writings. 
The  sizing  of  writings  is  harder  than  that  of  printings, 
and  the  materials  used  are  manipulated  to  give  a firmer 
handle  to  the  paper,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  all 
writing  papers  should  not  be  used  &s  printings  in 
work  of  the  character  of  booklets,  magazines  without 
illustrations,  and  a large  part  of  the  jobbing  work  which 
keeps  to  leaflet  and  pamphlet  sizes.  The  nature  of 
writing  papers  makes  them  less  absorbent  than  print- 
ings, so  that  the  ink  does  not  sink  into  the  paper 
quickly.  This  is  desirable  in  the  case  of  writing,  but 
not  in  the  case  of  printing,  where  a fair  absorbency  aids 
the  rapid  drying  of  printed  work. 

Drawing  papers  are  made  in  various  qualities.  The 
best  kinds  for  water-colour  drawings  are  made  from 
strong  rags,  chiefly  linen,  only  boiled  to  remove  dirt 
and  other  impurities,  and  reduced  to  pulp  without 
the  use  of  bleach  or  other  chemicals.  Hand-made 
papers  are  the  best,  being  tub-sized,  air-dried,  and 
the  surfaces — rough,  “ not  ” (matt),  or  hot  pressed — 
obtained  by  pressure,  not  by  rolling.  A few  high-class 
mills  are  responsible  for  machine-made  drawings  similar 
in  furnish  and  finish  to  those  made  by  hand.  Engine- 
sized drawing  papers  are  more  like  cartridge  papers, 
but  some  of  the  cheaper  varieties  resemble  thick  toned 
printings.  Cartridge  papers  are  made  from  long-fibred 
stuff  which  is  only  partly  bleached.  Some  cartridges 


42 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


are  tub-sized,  and  the  papers  serve  as  substitutes  for 
drawing  papers.  Being  very  strong  they  make  excel- 
lent cover  papers  for  books  and  lists  of  various  kinds. 
Crayon  papers  are  coloured  or  tinted  drawing  papers 
used  for  crayon  and  water-colour  work. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


PRINTING  PAPERS 

There  is  considerable  variety  in  printing  papers,  as 
regards  fibre,  sizing,  and  surface.  As  generally  under- 
stood, printings  are  papers  of  good  colour,  not  too 
hard-sized,  of  good  surface,  even  in  texture,  fairly 
opaque,  showing  a clear  look-through,  free  from  specks 
and  spots.  The  fibrous  composition  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  price.  An  all-rag  paper  is  a splendid  white 
paper,  soft  to  print  upon,  pleasant  to  handle,  very 
durable,  and  a type  of  moderate  colour  printed  with  a 
good  black  ink  gives  a very  rich  appearance  on  such 
paper.  Hand-made,  Dutch  hand-made,  mould-made, 
and  machine-made  rag  papers  are  the  papers  for  very 
special  editions.  Special  moulds  or  dandy  rolls  are 
sometimes  made  for  these  papers  to  secure  a distinctive 
appearance. 

High-grade  printing  papers  are  produced  from  a 
mixture  of  rag  and  esparto  fibres,  a soft  paper,  taking 
a good  finish,  being  produced.  A blend  of  chemical 
wood  and  esparto,  skilfully  manufactured,  produces  a 
very  good  printing  paper  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  and 
papers  composed  entirely  of  chemical  wood  may  be 
good  or  indifferent  according  to  the  treatment  and  skill 
devoted  to  their  production.  Sulphite  papers  tend  to 
be  harsh  and  transparent,  but  a mixture  of  soda  pulp 
partly  counteracts  these  faults,  and  even  if  it  is  not  quite 
as  soft  as  an  esparto  mixture,  excellent  results  in  print- 


44 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


ing  can  be  obtained  if  the  fibres  have  been  carefully 
beaten  and  blended.  Papers  containing  mechanical 
wood  are  classed  as  common  printings,  and  are  suit- 
able only  for  common  work.  A small  proportion  of 
mechanical  wood  may  not  be  noticeable  in  the  finished 
paper,  but  when  a large  proportion  is  used,  greyness  of 
CQlour  and  poorness  of  appearance  are  sure  indications 
of  the  low  quality  of  the  material.  Hand-  and  mould- 
made  papers  have  no  mineral  filling  in  their  composition. 
For  machine-made  papers  the  addition  of  a small 
proportion  enables  them  to  take  a very  good  finish. 
The  amount  of  china  clay  present  in  the  finished  paper 
should  not  exceed  io  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight. 

Hand-made  and  mould-made  printings  are  tub- 
sized and  plate-rolled,  without  giving  a high  glaze  to 
the  paper.  Machine-made  printings  are  engine-sized, 
hard  or  soft  according  to  the  use  to  which  the  paper  is 
to  be  put,  and  sometimes  the  surface  will  govern  the 
sizing,  some  papers  being  hard-sized  and  super- 
calendered,  others  soft-sized  and  with  only  machine 
finish.  As  a matter  of  fact,  super-calendered  printings 
are  used  largely  for  illustrated  work,  and  with  half-tone 
blocks  the  ink  must  dry  thoroughly  and  fairly  quickly, 
so  the  paper  is  not  hard-sized.  All  thin  printings 
require  to  be  well  sized  to  prevent  the  ink  sinking  right 
through  the  paper,  and  most  papers  with  machine  finish, 
excepting  the  commoner  news,  are  usually  well  sized, 
and  coloured  printings,  too,  incline  to  hard-sizing. 

The  best  Bible  papers  are  made  of  rag  fibres  with 
a fair  amount  of  loading,  and  some  starch  to  ensure 
opacity  and  good  printing  qualities.  The  Oxford  India 
paper  is  still  manufactured  under  special  conditions 
which  are  kept  secret,  but  there  are  many  imitations 
which  serve  excellently  for  the  purpose  of  thin  paper 
editions.  The  graphic  demonstration  of  the  difference 


PRINTING  PAPERS 


45 


between  the  thickness  of  the  “ Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ” 
printed  upon  India  paper  and  ordinary  printing  paper 
will  be  fresh  in  the  minds  of  most  readers. 

Toned  papers  are  made  of  the  same  materials  as 
white  paper,  the  creamy  colour  being  obtained  by  the 
addition  of  a small  amount  of  colouring  matter  to  the 
pulp. 

Featherweight  papers  are  made  entirely  of  esparto, 
very  little  sizing  is  added,  no  loading  is  used,  the  paper 
is  treated  so  that  the  wire  and  felt  marks  are  not  easily 
visible,  and  the  drying  and  finishing  are  carried  out  so 
as  to  retain  the  bulkiness  of  paper.  It  must  always  be 
remembered  that  all  papers  made  under  such  conditions 
are  not  durable,  and  therefore  should  never  be  used  for 
work  which  must  withstand  any  considerable  handling. 

Coloured  and  tinted  papers  are  made  of  the  same 
materials  as  white  printings,  but  usually  the  fibres  will 
be  chemical  wood  and  esparto,  all  chemical,  or  a 
mixture  of  chemical  and  mechanical  wood  pulps.  The 
variety  of  tints  in  which  papers  can  be  obtained  is  very 
extensive,  and  this  is  impressed  upon  one  when  trying 
to  match  up  some  particular  shade,  when  it  appears  as 
though  makers  have  many  substitutes  for  the  desired 
colour.  The  colours  of  papers  should  be  fairly  fast  to 
light,  and  with  the  large  variety  obtainable  by  the  use 
of  the  pigments  and  dyes  now  on  the  market,  paper- 
makers  manage  to  offer  a long  range  of  fast  colours. 
Although  it  may  not  always  be  so,  fastness  usually 
follows  the  price  of  the  paper,  the  cheapest  being  the 
most  liable  to  fade  quickly.  Delicate  tints  are  more 
expensive  because  of  the  necessity  of  a better  quality 
of  paper  to  take  the  colours  evenly  and  cleanly. 
Coloured  printing  papers  should  be  fairly  well  sized, 
well  finished,  and  free  from  spots  and  specks. 

In  addition  to  possessing  the  good  qualities  of 


46 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


printings,  lithographic  papers  must  be  firm  and  free 
from  permanent  stretch.  In  letterpress  printing,  only  a 
portion  of  the  paper  is  pressed  by  the  printing  surface, 
but  in  lithography  the  whole  of  the  paper  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  stone  or  other  surface.  If  the 
printing  surface  is  full  or  solid,  as  in  the  case  of  printing 
a ground  tint,  the  pull  on  the  surface  of  the  paper  is 
heavy,  and  unless  the  paper  is  well  made  the  surface 
will  pluck  or  pull  up  in  patches,  or  even  all  over  the 
sheet.  The  pressure  exerts  a stretching  influence  on 
the  paper,  and  the  moisture  from  damping  induces 
expansion  of  the  sheet.  Lithographic  papers  require 
special  care  in  selection  of  material  and  manufacture,  so 
as  to  introduce  and  preserve  all  the  necessary  qualities 
of  easy  printing,  perfect  register,  and  quick  drying. 

Esparto  fibre  is  short  and  soft,  prints  easily,  and 
experience  has  proved  that  esparto  papers  stretch 
less  than  most  other  papers,  and  therefore  litho  papers 
usually  contain  a large  proportion  of  this  useful  material. 
An  all-rag  litho.  paper  is  the  first  quality  ; then  rag  and 
esparto,  all  esparto,  chemical  wood  and  esparto,  mark 
the  various  grades  of  paper  for  lithographic  printing. 
While  the  papers  should  not  be  hard-sized,  they  should 
not  err  on  the  other  side,  or  absorption  of  moisture 
may  cause  trouble  when  registering.  Soft  material^, 
beaten  quickly,  dried  gradually,  not  drawn  too  fast  by 
the  drying  cylinders,  are  necessary  to  produce  a 
satisfactory  paper.  The  surface  must  be  perfectly 
smooth,  and  this  is  obtained  by  super-calendering  or 
plate-glazing,  both  of  which  tend  to  reduce  the  liability 
of  the  papers  to  stretch.  The  latter  method  is  the 
better  but  more  expensive  method  of  producing  the 
desired  surface,  and  by  turning  the  piles  of  paper  and 
rolling  in  each  direction  of  the  sheet,  subsequent  stretch 
in  working  is  reduced  to  a minimum. 


PRINTING  PAPERS 


47 


Plate  papers  are  fine  papers,  soft-sized,  lightly 
rolled,  usually  having  one  side  only  with  a smooth 
finish.  Thick  plate  papers  are  made  by  rolling  two 
or  more  webs  of  wet  paper  together,  and  finishing  as 
usual.  The  softness  of  the  paper  enables  it  to  take  all 
the  ink  from  the  finest  lines  of  the  steel  or  copper 
plates  printed  upon  the  surface. 

Poster  paper  for  lithographic  or  letterpress  printing 
is  made  with  a rough  back  to  enable  pasting  to  hoard- 
ings to  take  place  more  easily.  These  papers  are 
made  on  the  single  cylinder  machine,  and,  having  only 
one  side  glazed — the  printing  side  — are  known  as 
M.G.  poster  papers. 

Imitation  art  papers  are  distinctly  between  super- 
calendered  printings  and  art  papers  in  printing  quality, 
but  they  lack  strength,  owing  to  the  method  of  their 
manufacture.  Art  paper  has  a mineral  coating,  while 
imitation  art  has  a large  percentage  (about  2 5 per  cent.) 
of  china  clay  mixed  with  the  pulp.  China  clay,  having 
no  cohesion,  does  not  assist  in  felting  the  paper  in  any 
way,  but  tends  to  weaken  its  resistance  to  wear.  That 
weakness  or  tenderness  is  one  feature  of  imitation  art 
papers.  After  leaving  the  paper  machine  the  paper 
is  super-calendered,  receiving  a water  finish,  that  is,  the 
paper  is  just  wetted  on  the  surface  immediately  before 
entering  the  rolls  of  the  calender.  The  loading  is  thus 
brought  to  the  surface,  and  a very  smooth  level  sheet  is 
produced,  only  a little  inferior,  as  a printing  surface,  to 
art  paper.  Being  opaque,  suitable  for  half-tone  printing, 
and  of  good  appearance,  imitation  art  is  used  largely  for 
illustrated  magazine  work,  and  serves  the  purpose  well, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  large  proportion 
of  mineral  matter  renders  the  paper  liable  to  disintegra- 
tion from  frequent  handling. 


CHAPTER  IX 


COATED  PAPERS  AND  BOARDS 

COATED  papers  comprise  those  to  which,  after  manu- 
facture as  paper,  a mineral  coating,  white  or  coloured, 
is  applied,  in  order  to  produce  a smooth  unbroken 
surface  for  the  reception  of  fine  printed  work.  Art, 
chromo,  enamel,  and  surface-coloured  papers  are  all 
coated  after  the  body  paper  is  made. 

Art  papers  may  be  made  of  rag,  esparto,  chemical 
wood,  or  chemical  and  mechanical  wood,  or  a mixture 
of  any  of  the  fibres.  The  body  paper  is  carefully 
made,  its  ultimate  state  being  kept  in  mind,  and  it 
is  fairly  well  sized,  but  without  a high  glaze.  The 
surface  is  kept  so  that  the  coating  will  cover  properly 
and  the  adhesive  be  fully  effective  in  holding  the 
mineral.  The  operations  comprise  coating,  drying, 
and  finishing.  The  coating  is  carried  out  on  a com- 
pact machine.  A mixture  of  china  clay,  glue,  and 
water  is  supplied  at  a constant  level  to  the  feed  trough 
of  the  machine,  from  which  it  is  transferred  to  paper 
by  means  of  a roller  and  felt ; oscillating  and  stationary 
brushes  rub  the  coating  into  the  paper,  filling  up  all 
inequalities  and  leaving  a smooth  film  on  the  surface. 
The  purpose  of  the  coating  is  to  give  a perfectly  smooth 
surface,  obliterating  entirely  the  marks  of  the  machine 
wire  and  felts,  and  to  do  this  effectively  the  consistency 
of  the  mixture  is  regulated  so  that  it  may  enter  the 
minute  depressions  and  deposit  sufficient  matter  to  take 


COATED  PATERS  AND  BOARDS 


49 


a good  finish.  An  ingenious  overhead  railway  carries 
the  web  forward  in  a series  of  loops  supported  on  a 
series  of  rods,  hot  air  driven  forward  by  mechanical 
fans  effecting  the  drying.  If  the  paper  is  two-sided 
art,  it  is  reeled  and  the  operations  repeated  on  the  other 
side  of  the  paper.  As  the  coating  is  slightly  thicker 
at  the  edges  of  the  web,  these  edges  are  trimmed  off, 
and  the  web  goes  forward  for  one  or  more  journeys 
through  the  super-calender  rolls.  Dull  art  and  papers 
with  a specially  high  finish  receive  slightly  different 
treatment,  the  surface  in  all  cases  being  made  perfectly 
smooth  in  order  that  the  finest  half-tones  may  be 
printed  successfully. 

Chromo  papers  are  usually  coated  on  one  side  only, 
and  the  body  paper  is  stouter  than  that  used  for  art 
papers.  Used  largely  for  lithography,  the  paper  must 
be  as  free  from  stretch  as  possible.  This  is  obtained 
as  described  in  the  chapter  on  the  reduction  to  pulp, 
by  using  soft  fibres,  sharp  beater  knives,  and  cutting  up 
quickly,  this  treatment  producing  what  the  papermaker 
knows  as  “ free  ” pulp,  as  distinguished  from  “ wet  ” 
pulp,  which,  owing  to  prolonged  treatment,  combines 
with  some  of  the  water  and  actually  becomes  “ wet.” 
The  surface  of  chromo  papers  may  be  dull  or  highly 
glazed. 

Surface  coloured  enamelled  papers  are  used  largely 
by  box-makers,  for  labels  for  packets  of  various 
commodities,  and  also  as  end  papers  for  books.  The 
coating  and  body  paper  are  thinner  than  for  art  papers, 
the  colour  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  a pigment  or  an 
aniline  colour,  and  the  coating  and  after-treatment  are 
exactly  as  in  the  case  of  art  papers.  Flint-glazed 
surface  papers  are  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
surface-enamelled  papers,  and  have  a hard  burnished 
surface  obtained  by  a stone  burnisher  travelling  back- 


4 


50 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


wards  and  forwards  across  the  surface  of  the  paper  as 
it  emerges  from  the  calender  rolls. 

Boards  may  be  coated  in  the  same  way  as  paper, 
provided  the  boards  are  not  too  thick.  The  thicker 
qualities  are  either  coated  on  a modified  machine,  the 
looping  being  impossible,  or  coating  by  hand  is  resorted 
to.  The  boards  are  obtainable  as  one-  or  two-sided, 
with  different  degrees  of  surface,  and  with  different 
coloured  coatings.  Coated  boards  are  sometimes  made 
by  pasting  coated  papers  to  ordinary  middles,  and 
finishing  by  plate  rolling. 

Thin  box  boards  for  use  as  cartons  for  small  goods, 
such  as  cigarette  packets,  are  coated  with  a coloured 
coating  in  the  manner  already  described. 

Coloured  cloth-lined  cards  are  first  manufactured  as 
pasteboards,  and  are  afterwards  coated  on  the  cloth 
side  with  the  coloured  coating,  two  applications  being 
necessary  in  many  cases  to  obtain  the  desired  thickness 
and  surface.  Plate-glazing  is  the  means  of  imparting 
the  ordinary  surface  to  this  class  of  cards. 


CHAPTER  X 

MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS 

Blotting,  Duplicating,  Copying,  Tissue,  Cover, 
Gummed,  Wrapping 

There  are  so  many  varieties  of  paper  which  are  only 
occasionally  encountered  that  it  us  better  to  present 
the  whole  of  them  in  alphabetical  arrangement  (see 
Chapter  XVII.),  and  in  this  section  to  give  a longer 
description  of  a few  representative  papers. 

Blottings  and  filter  papers  are  very  similar  in 
appearance  and  manufacture,  their  definite  purposes 
being  to  absorb  moisture,  and  to  filter  suspended  matter 
from  solutions  respectively.  The  description  of  blotting 
paper  manufacture  will  cover  both  varieties.  The  office 
of  blotting  paper  being  to  absorb  ink,  the  raw  material 
is  chosen  with  a view  to  obtain  the  most  efficient  fibre 
for  the  purpose,  soft  muslins,  too  soft  for  writing  papers, 
making  excellent  blottings.  The  preliminary  treatment 
of  the  rags  has  been  described  already.  Beating  is 
carried  out  as  quickly  as  possible,  sharp  knives  being 
used  to  cut  the  fibres  into  short  lengths,  and  not  to  bruise 
or  beat  the  fibres  more  finely.  As  many  fibre  ends  as 
possible  must  be  absorbing  on  a given  area  at  one 
time,  and  the  shorter  the  lengths  to  which  the  fibres 
are  cut,  the  greater  the  efficiency  of  the  blotting  paper, 
within  certain  limits.  Certain  after-treatment  of  the 
fibre  is  resorted  to,  to  produce  as  soft  and  absorbent  a 


51 


52 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


fibre  as  is  consistent  with  the  necessary  cohesion,  but  of 
course  manufacturers  prefer  to  keep  special  methods  to 
themselves.  At  the  paper  machine  little  or  no  shake 
is  given,  and  very  light  pressure  is  given  throughout, 
just  sufficient  to  smooth  the  paper  down.  Strength  is 
not  aimed  at,  but  the  paper  must  be  strong  enough  to 
resist  the  handling  it  will  receive  in  ordinary  use. 

Most  blotting  papers  are  made  in  demy,  with  a 
standard  weight  of  38  lb.  per  ream  of  480  sheets. 
There  are  blottings  made  of  wood  pulp,  but  these  are 
far  below  the  rag  papers  in  efficiency.  Soda  wood 
pulp  makes  a very  fair  blotting  paper,  but  sulphite 
wood  is  not  so  absorbent  as  soda  pulp  paper.  Wood 
pulp  blottings  are  usually  made  in  thin  substances  for 
interleaving  diaries  and  similar  books,  where  repeated 
use  will  not  be  required.  Enamelled  blotting  papers 
are  made  by  pasting  enamelled  (coated)  papers  to  the 
ordinary  blotting  paper  and  rolling  down.  These 
blottings  can  be  obtained  in  a variety  of  colours,  both 
the  blotting  and  surface  paper  being  varied  in  colour. 
Coloured  blottings  are  made  of  the  usual  ingredients, 
with  added  colouring  matter. 

Duplicating,  impression,  and  multi  - copying  are 
different  names  for  the  same  papers.  They  are  used 
for  the  various  duplicating  machines  of  the  cyclostyle 
and  mimeograph  patterns,  where  a number  of  copies  of 
written  or  typewritten  matter  is  required  quickly.  A 
very  thin  ink  is  used,  and  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 
be  absorbed  very  speedily.  These  papers  are  practi- 
cally unsized,  contain  a large  proportion  of  esparto  for 
the  better  qualities,  and  a certain  quantity  of  mechani- 
cal wood  in  the  cheaper  sorts.  A very  large  range 
of  these  papers  is  obtainable  : laid  or  wove,  white, 

cream  or  tinted,  with  rough  or  moderately  smooth 
finish.  For  copies  produced  by  the  same  process,  where 


MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS 


53 


a signature  has  to  be  appended,  or  when  the  form  serves 
as  a blank  for  written  additions,  a half-sized  paper 
is  obtainable  in  similar  qualities  and  tints. 

Tissue  papers  are  strong,  thin  papers,  the  best 
quality  being  made  from  hemp  or  rag  fibre,  well  beaten, 
with  no  loading  or  sizing,  made  in  blue  or  cream, 
usually  double  crown  in  size  ; other  qualities  are  made 
from  mixtures  of  rag,  chemical  wood,  and  straw,  in 
various  proportions  and  in  various  weights.  Tissues 
serve  a large  number  of  purposes,  as  wrappings  for 
high-class  goods,  therefore  they  must  be  strong  and 
free  from  chemicals,  for  fly-leaves  for  the  protection 
of  engravings  and  prints,  and  also  for  the  basis  of 
carbon  papers  which  are  used  for  obtaining  a simul- 
taneous copy  of  written  or  typewritten  documents. 

Copying  papers  are  similar  in  all  respects  to  tissues, 
but  some  varieties  have  a small  amount  of  mineral 
matter  added  to  increase  their  efficiency.  Made  in 
cream  wove,  blue  wove,  and  buff,  put  up  in  reams  of 
500  sheets,  copying  papers  are  used  for  press  copying 
correspondence  which  has  been  made  in  copyable  ink. 
Special  typewriter  ribbons  are  supplied,  but  most 
typewritten  matter  copied  without  trouble.  The  leaf 
of  the  copying  book  is  damped,  the  excess  of  moisture 
removed  by  an  absorbent  sheet,  the  document  inserted, 
the  book  closed,  and  pressed  in  the  copying  press.  By 
this  means  copies  of  correspondence  are  preserved  for 
reference.  Copying  paper  is  also  made  up  in  rolls  for 
copying  machines  which  carry  out  the  damping  and 
copying  automatically. 

Cover  papers  are  obtainable  in  many  qualities, 
colours,  and  sizes.  The  materials  used  in  their  manu- 
facture run  through  the  whole  range  of  papermaking 
fibres,  the  best  qualities  having  a good  proportion  of 
rag  fibre,  while  the  low  grades  have  some  quantity 


54 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


of  mechanical  wood,  but  there  should  be  little  if 
any  mineral  matter  present,  as  strength  is  an  important 
feature.  The  finish  of  the  papers  is  smooth,  moderately 
rough,  or  rough  ; the  colours  tend  to  browns,  greys, 
slates,  and  dark  greens,  but  a fair  number  of  more 
delicate  shades  can  be  obtained,  and  some  of  the 
reds  are  most  effective.  The  substances  of  cover 
papers  run  from  18  lb.  to  56  lb.  demy  per  ream  of 
480  sheets,  so  there  is  sufficient  variety  from  which 
to  select  paper  to  suit  any  job. 

As  covers  for  booklets,  price  lists,  pamphlets,  etc., 
cover  papers  are  regularly  used,  and  for  other  purposes 
there  has  arisen  a demand  for  the  darker  shades.  The 
army  of  photographers,  professional  and  amateur,  have 
employed  cover  papers  as  mounts,  either  in  the  form  of 
cut  mounts  or  as  photographic  albums.  For  these 
purposes  the  range  of  substances  has  been  extended, 
the  heavy  papers  being  made  in  card  thicknesses.  In 
making  papers  for  photographic  mounts  a very 
necessary  quality  is  that  the  paper  shall  be  absolutely 
free  from  chemical  substances  likely  to  affect  the 
photographic  prints  mounted  upon  them.  Colour 
prints  are  mounted  on  neutral  cover  papers  for 
insertion  in  magazines  or  books,  but  when  publications 
have  extensive  and  growing  circulations,  the  time  and 
cost  of  mounting  militate  against  this  very  effective 
method  of  displaying  illustrations. 

Embossed  cover  papers  are  made  and  finished  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  run  through  special  rolls  having  the 
pattern  engraved  upon  them.  Papers  for  embossing 
must  possess  good  strength  or  the  embossed  design  will 
not  stand  handling,  or  the  paper  may  break  when 
embossed. 

Pamphlet  cover  papers  are  thick  tinted  papers, 
made  in  a very  pleasing  variety,  serving  as  programme 


MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS 


55 


papers  and  for  much  jobbing  work,  as  well  as  for  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  originally  intended. 

Covers  for  exercise  books  are  usually  glazed  on  one 
side  only  (M.G.).  This  should  be  the  outside  of  the 
book,  and  any  printing  should  be  executed  on  the 
smooth  side.  “ Pressings  ” are  the  papers  usually 
employed  for  such  purposes,  a cheap  cover  paper 
obtainable  in  various  colours,  weights,  and  sizes. 

Gummed  papers  are  made  in  a variety  of  qualities, 
colours,  and  substances.  The  papers  range  from  the 
thinnest  printing  to  thick  enamelled  paper,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  coating  of  gum  is  varied  to  meet  all 
requirements.  Many  colours  of  paper  can  be  procured 
ready  gummed.  To  obtain  a satisfactory  gummed  paper 
three  things  have  to  be  studied  : body  paper,  gum,  and 
thickness  of  coating.  The  inherent  fault  of  gummed 
papers  is  the  tendency  to  curl,  but  the  extensive  manu- 
facture of  non-curling  gummed  papers  has  done  much 
to  remove  this  bugbear.  By  adopting  a paper  which 
is  affected  but  little  by  atmospheric  changes  something 
is  accomplished  in  the  minimising  of  curling,  but  by  an 
ingenious  breaking  of  the  gummed  surface  non-curling 
is  secured.  When  the  coating  is  dry,  the  paper  is 
drawn  over  a steel  edge  to  break  the  homogeneous 
film  of  gum  into  innumerable  fragments.  In  absorb- 
ing or  parting  with  moisture  (the  cause  of  curling)  the 
small  particles  can  only  act  as  individuals  instead  of 
combining  and  curling.  Any  kind  of  paper  can  be 
gummed,  but  the  thinner  the  paper  the  more  effective 
its  adhesion  when  used  as  a label.  When  a label,  slip, 
or  any  printed  matter  has  to  cover  other  printed 
matter,  the  paper  must  be  thicker  and  opaque  enough  to 
prevent  the  matter  beneath  from  showing  through. 

Wrapping  papers  are  of  many  kinds,  of  various 
substances  and  colours,  and  are  varied,  too,  in  surface. 


56 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


The  materials  used  range  from  the  strongest  to  the 
weakest — from  hemp  rope  to  mechanical  wood — and 
include  jute  in  the  form  of  old  gunny  bags  or  sacking, 
hemp  refuse,  old  rope  and  string,  waste  card  cuttings, 
old  paper,  and  wood  pulp  refuse.  The  substance  ranges 
from  38  lb.  to  160  lb.  per  ream  of  480  sheets  in 
double  imperial,  the  colour  from  “ white  ” to  a very 
dark  brown,  and  the  finish  from  highly  glazed  both 
sides  to  a rough  air-dried  surface. 

Strong  materials  are  boiled  under  pressure  for 
several  hours,  lime  being  employed  for  hard  papers, 
and  soda  for  softer  papers.  The  fibres  receive  but 
little  washing,  going  on  to  the  beaters,  where  the 
stronger  fibres  are  first  reduced  and  the  softer  materials 
added  later.  Loading,  colouring,  and  size  are  added, 
and  the  paper  made  on  the  Fourdrinier.  Air-dried 
browns  are  specially  tough,  very  leathery,  will  stand 
a great  deal  of  folding,  and  when  packing  and  unpack- 
ing of  parcels  is  required  the  extra  cost  is  easily 
recouped.  Cylinder-dried  browns  are  dried  on  the 
paper  machine,  and  the  papers  are  not  so  elastic  as 
air-dried  papers  of  the  same  substance.  Glazed  browns 
are  usually  lighter  in  colour  and  cleaner  in  appearance 
than  the  ordinary  wrappings,  and  usually  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  wood  pulp.  Kraft  browns  may 
be  described  as  glazed  browns,  as  they  are  sometimes 
finished  with  a glazed  surface  both  sides.  A special 
kind  of  pulp  is  used  for  krafts,  wood  being  digested 
at  a comparatively  low  pressure  with  soda  solution,  the 
boiling  being  prolonged.  The  fibres  are  loosened,  and 
reduction  to  pulp  takes  place  in  the  edge  runner 
(kollergang)  instead  of  the  beating  engine.  By  this 
means  the  fibres  are  drawn  out,  not  cut  up,  and  very 
tough  papers  can  be  made,  fully  entitling  the  papers  to 
their  description  as  “ kraft  ” (German  for  “ strength  ”). 


MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS 


57 


Special  wrappings  which  will  not  discolour  the 
goods  packed  in  them  are  necessary  for  packing  such 
fabrics  as  cotton  goods,  this  quality  being  made  without 
added  colouring  matter.  Ream  wrappers  are  sometimes 
thick  common  papers,  serving  as  protective  coverings 
only,  being  heavy  but  with  little  strength.  Some 
papers  are  packed  conscientiously,  the  manufacturer 
or  stationer  recognising  the  fact  that  a valuable  paper 
demands  a good  packing  paper.  The  use  of  poor 
paper  is  strange,  seeing  that  the  printer  is  charged 
for  the  wrapper  at  the  rate  quoted  for  the  contents. 


CHAPTER  XI 


CARDS  AND  CARDBOARDS 

In  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  boards 
a brief  description  of  the  method  of  the  production 
of  each  variety  is  given.  Pulp  boards,  triplex  (or 
multiplex),  and  pasteboards  are  there  described,  and 
coated  boards  of  various  sorts  are  included  in 
Chapter  IX. 

Pulp  boards  are  frequently  looked  upon  as  soft 
and  flexible,  and  many  may  be  so  described,  but  for 
card  index  work  a stiff  snappy  card,  thin  in  substance, 
is  required,  and  as  pasteboards  and  other  cards  made 
up  of  layers  tend  to  split  when  subjected  to  much  use, 
pulp  boards  are  essential  for  that  class  of  work.  The 
boards  which  most  closely  resemble  ivory  boards  in 
appearance  will  be  found  the  most  suitable  for  system 
use.  A smooth  writing  surface,  free  from  spots  and 
other  imperfections,  is  required,  but  the  cards  should 
be  easy  to  rule  and  print.  It  is  impossible  to  manipu- 
late successfully  cockled  or  wavy  boards  in  ruling, 
printing,  or  cutting,  so  time  will  be  saved  if  the 
selection  of  boards  for  index  cards  is  made  from  the 
kinds  which  can  be  obtained  perfectly  flat.  The  softer 
kinds  of  pulp  boards  are  excellent  for  a great  deal  of 
advertising  matter,  folders,  post-cards,  and  for  jobs  for 
which  something  stouter  than  the  usual  tinted  papers 
is  required.  Where  rigidity  is  demanded  pasteboards 
will  be  found  of  service.  Some  boards  are  made  with 


58 


CARDS  AND  CARDBOARDS 


59 


grey  middles  and  poor  facings,  but  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  a good  class  of  boards  at  a moderate  price,  and 
it  is  far  more  satisfactory  to  keep  a stock  of  material 
of  good  appearance  than  to  obtain  the  lowest  quality 
possible.  White  cardboards  should  be  rigid,  of  good 
colour,  smooth,  and  should  be  so  well  sized  as  to  be 
suitable  for  post-cards  or  similar  work.  Pasteboards 
can  be  obtained  in  various  substances,  being  described 
as  three-sheet,  four-sheet,  etc.,  but  there  is  no  point 
system  in  card  thicknesses,  as  one  maker’s  six-sheet 
will  be  the  same  as  a four-sheet  of  another  manufacturer. 
A very  fair  range  of  colours  can  be  obtained  in  paste- 
boards, but  if  a special  colour  is  desired  a making 
order  is  frequently  necessary  to  ensure  sufficient  of  the 
special  facing  paper. 

Triplex  boards  are  not  made  in  the  same  variety 
of  thickness  or  colours  as  pasteboards.  It  is  not 
possible  to  build  up  the  substance  in  triplex  and  to 
dry  the  web  successfully  in  the  thickness  of  the  heavier 
pasteboards,  but  it  is  possible  to  procure  very  good 
triplex  boards  with  the  attributes  specified  for  paste- 
boards. 

The  better  qualities  of  cardboards  will  be  found 
suitable  for  most  classes  of  printing,  even  for  half-tone 
work,  but  if  three-colour  blocks  are  to  be  printed, 
coated  boards  are  necessary.  Chromo  boards,  one-  or 
two-sided,  are  obtainable  from  three-  to  twelve-sheet  in 
substance,  and  on  these  any  class  of  work  will  stand 
well.  Owing  to  the  burnished  surface  of  these  boards 
show  cards  keep  clean  for  a much  longer  period  than 
when  ordinary  cardboards  are  used,  and  frequently 
varnishing  can  be  dispensed  with  if  enamelled  boards 
are  not  exposed  to  weather.  Coated  boards  must  be 
handled  with  care  at  all  times,  as  the  surface  is 
sensitive  to  grease  and  moisture,  notwithstanding  its 


6o 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


dustproof  tendency.  Cloth-lined  and  cloth-surfaced 
boards  are  used  for  club  cards,  being  very  durable  and 
folding  well.  The  white  side  should  always  be  the 
inside. 

Wholesale  stationers  keep  a large  and  varied  stock 
of  cut  cards,  plain,  round  cornered,  gilt  edged,  embossed, 
plate  sunk,  with  fancy  borders  and  fancy  surfaces.  A 
list  of  stock  sizes  will  be  found  on  page  140,  but  this 
list  does  not  refer  to  every  variety  of  card.  Some 
kinds,  such  as  ivory  cards,  are  stocked  in  all  the 
regular  visiting  and  business  card  sizes  and  multiples 
of  the  same,  and  others  in  the  usual  ticket  and 
correspondence  card  sizes.  Reference  to  the  stock 
book  of  any  maker  will  serve  as  a guide  in  ordering 
for  stock  or  for  special  purposes.  Post-cards,  plain  and 
with  printed  fronts,  are  procurable  in  a variety  of 
qualities,  and  often  prove  very  useful  to  small  printers. 

The  standard  size  for  boards  of  all  kinds  is  royal, 
25  inches  x 20  inches. 


CHAPTER  XII 


DURABILITY  OF  PAPER 

PAPER  is  used  for  many  publications  and  jobs  of  an 
ephemeral  character,  and  for  these  the  permanence  of 
paper  is  never  in  question.  On  the  other  hand, 
ledgers,  leases,  agreements,  share  certificates,  must  be 
upon  paper  which  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  per- 
manent and  capable  of  resisting  a good  deal  of  handling. 
Printed  records,  too,  must  be  preserved  on  paper  that 
will,  with  ordinary  care,  be  indestructible. 

The  constituents  of  paper,  as  shown  in  the  first 
chapter,  are  vegetable  fibres,  mineral  filling,  colouring 
matter,  and  vegetable  or  animal  sizing.  The  .fibres 
producing  the  paper  which  approximates  most  nearly 
to  a pure  cellulose  material,  with  the  minimum  of 
chemical  and  mechanical  treatment,  are,  of  course,  the 
best  possible.  Classified  with  that  in  view,  cotton, 
flax,  hemp,  chemical  wood,  esparto,  and  mechanical 
wood  is  the  order  of  merit.  Cotton  is,  more  than  any 
other  material,  the  ideal  fibre.  It  contains  91  per  cent, 
of  pure  cellulose,  has  a comparatively  small  amount  of 
incrusting  matter,  and  its  fibre  is  easily  bleached,  and 
easily  prepared  for  papermaking.  Consisting  as  it 
does  of  seed-hairs,  cotton  is  a free  fibre  from  the  first. 
It  consists  of  a long  tube,  of  dumb-bell  section,  with  a 
tendency  to  twist  upon  itself.  Prolonged  beating 
produces  numerous  fibrillae,  and  the  softness  of  the 
original  fibre  is  preserved  until  over-beating  is  reached. 


6 2 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


The  twisting,  the  division  into  fibrillae,  make  for 
strength,  good  felting,  and,  with  the  softness  in  addition, 
the  best  and  most  durable  papers  are  those  of  cotton. 

The  flax  fibre  is  a bast  fibre.  Its  yield  of  pure 
cellulose  is  70  to  80  per  cent.  The  fibre  consists 
of  a thick  walled  canal,  which  is  easily  seen  in  the 
unbeaten  state.  Beating  tends  to  crush  and  remove 
the  early  characteristics.  The  fibres  are  regularly 
rounded  or  polygonal,  and  easily  split  into  numerous 
fibrillae,  the  ends  of  the  fibres  beat  out  into  bunches 
of  small  fibres,  and  these,  together  with  the  nodules 
which  occur  on  many  of  the  fibres,  produce  strength 
in  the  paper.  The  flax  fibre  is  straighter  than  the 
cotton  fibre,  and  so  linen  papers  are  stiffer  and  harder 
than  cotton  papers. 

Wood,  produced  as  fibres  by  chemical  means, 
consists  largely  of  tracheids,  long  ribbon-like  cells, 
which  are  easily  broken  into  shorter  lengths.  It  is  not 
possible  to  subdivide  the  fibres  longitudinally  by  pro- 
longed beating.  This  only  tends  to  shorten  the  fibres. 
Hence  Mitscherlich,1  or  similarly  produced  wood  pulp, 
gives  strong  tough  papers,  unattainable  by  those  pulps 
which  are  strongly  bleached  and  much  reduced.  The 
tracheids,  being  smooth  and  flat,  do  not  tend  to  make 
soft  papers.  But,  blended  with  rag  or  esparto  fibres, 
excellent  papers  may  be  produced.  Only  50  per  cent, 
of  fibre  is  produced  from  the  original  wood. 

Esparto  gives  a smooth,  cylindrical  fibre,  pointed, 
short,  with  small  canal.  Being  small,  the  fibres  do  not 
receive  much  treatment  in  beating.  Separation  and 
cleaning  are  the  principal  ends  of  the  preparatory 
stages.  Esparto  is,  to  the  papermaker,  synonymous 

1 Mitscherlich  process  : boiling  for  a long  period  under  low 
pressure,  afterwards  disintegrating  the  fibres  by  means  of  the  edge 
runner. 


DURABILITY  OF  PAPER 


63 


with  bulky  papers.  The  best  of  printing  papers,  litho. 
papers,  and  featherweights  are  composed  largely  of 
esparto.  It  blends  well  with  the  preceding  fibres, 
and  especially  with  chemical  wood  for  printing  papers. 
Unfortunately  esparto  is  liable  to  deterioration,  and 
thus  is  not  suitable  for  permanent  papers.  Its  yield 
of  cellulose  is  low — 42  to  47  per  cent. 

Mechanical  wood  is  lowest  in  the  scale  of  paper- 
making materials.  Chemically  it  is  impure ; struc- 
turally it  consists  of  chips  and  fragments,  seldom 
complete  fibres.  Ground  into  short  lengths,  it  consists 
usually  of  short  bundles  of  short  pieces  of  fibre.  It 
does  not  felt  well,  and  requires  the  addition  of  other 
fibrous  material  to  hold  the  pulp  together  as  paper. 
Ten  to  40  per  cent,  of  chemical  pulp  is  usually  added 
to  mechanical  pulp  to  make  it  more  lasting  and  less 
brittle. 

In  1898  a committee  appointed  by  the  Society 
of  Arts  reported  upon  the  deterioration  of  papers  after 
extensive  investigation.  Their  conclusions  hold  good 
to-day,  and  may  be  summarised  in  the  next  five  para- 
graphs. 

The  deterioration  of  paper  may  be  by  discoloration 
only,  or  disintegration  may  also  occur.  Discoloration 
may  be  caused  simply  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  is  to  be  seen  in  the  margins  of  books  and  in 
coloured  papers.  The  outer  margins  of  books  are 
more  susceptible  to  oxidation  than  the  interior,  and 
in  gaslit  rooms  most  books  will  in  time  suffer  from 
discoloured  margins.  Chemical  residues  from  the 
manufacturing  processes,  if  left  in  the  paper,  will 
bring  about  changes  in  colour,  engine-sized  papers 
being  more  liable  to  change  than  papers  which  are 
tub-sized.  Papers  which  contain  esparto,  straw,  or 
mechanical  wood,  will  in  chemical  laboratories  certainly 


64 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


become  discoloured,  as  aniline  and  other  coal-tar  bases 
stain  the  papers  yellow  or  pink.  There  are  but  few 
colouring  matters  which  are  absolutely  fast,  therefore 
most  tinted  and  coloured  papers  will  change  in  time. 

Loss  of  strength  may  be  due  to  impurities  in  paper, 
such  as  residues  of  the  chemicals  used  in  the  preparation 
of  the  pulp,  to  the  impurities  in  the  pulp  itself,  or  to  the 
use  of  gas  as  the  agent  for  lighting  and  heating.  The 
use  of  china  clay  for  the  improvement  of  the  surface  of 
the  paper  and  for  the  increase  of  opacity,  tends  to 
weaken  the  paper,  not  by  any  chemical  reaction,  but 
merely  by  rendering  the  paper  less  resistant  to  wear. 
The  attainment  of  extreme  whiteness  by  bleaching 
is  sometimes  obtained  at  the  expense  of  durability, 
as  products  are  sometimes  left  in  the  fibre  which  will 
cause  deterioration  and  discoloration  of  the  paper. 

The  classification  of  the  fibres  has  been  referred 
to,  and  the  four  classes  are  : (i)  cotton,  flax,  hemp  ; 
(ii)  chemical  wood  ; (iii)  esparto  and  straw ; (iv) 
mechanical  wood. 

For  written  documents  of  permanent  value  the 
paper  should  be  all  rag  fibre,  without  starch  and 
loading,  tub-sized  with  gelatine.  For  printed  books 
to  be  preserved  as  of  permanent  value,  not  less  than 
70  per  cent,  of  the  fibre  should  be  rag,  the  loading 
should  not  exceed  10  per  cent,  as  shown  in  the  ash 
of  the  paper,  and  the  sizing  should  be  effected  by 
not  more  than  2 per  cent,  of  resin. 

The  wearing  qualities  of  paper  are  affected  by 
the  method  of  manufacture  as  well  as  by  the  con- 
stituents. Blotting  paper,  which  is  an  all-rag  paper, 
will  soon  wear  away,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  fibres 
are  cut  short  and  loosely  held  together  without  sizing. 
If  the  paper  were  heavily  rolled  it  would  reduce  its 
usefulness  as  an  absorbent  paper.  Featherweight 


DURABILITY  OF  PAPER 


65 


papers  are  made  entirely  of  esparto,  finished  to  produce 
as  bulky  a paper  as  possible,  consequently  the  fibres 
are  not  well  rolled  together,  and  the  books  printed  on 
such  paper  are  anything  but  durable.  Imitation  art 
papers  give  a mineral  residue  of  25  to  35  per  cent, 
on  ashing,  and  have  very  little  strength,  owing  to 
the  large  proportion  of  china  clay  present. 

Art  papers  do  not  fold  or  stitch  well,  as  the  mineral 
coating,  although  firmly  fixed  to  the  paper,  behaves  as 
a non-fibrous  material  might  be  expected  to  do,  break- 
ing down,  and  the  paper  beneath  tends  to  give  way 
too.  If  kept  in  a damp  place  art  papers  absorb 
moisture  at  the  edges,  and  in  the  presence  of  a large 
amount  of  moisture  the  sheets  will  stick  together. 
Rag  art  papers  are  procurable  (the  body  being  a rag 
paper),  and  possibly  it  will  be  found  that  such  papers, 
kept  from  air  and  moisture,  will  be  very  durable. 

Papers  containing  a large  proportion  of  mechanical 
wood,  whether  coated  or  otherwise,  are  certain  to 
deteriorate  rapidly.  A newspaper  exposed  to  sunlight 
for  a day  or  two  becomes  discoloured  and  brittle,  the 
same  result  following  in  a longer  time  if  exposed  to 
light  and  air  without  the  sun.  For  this  reason  papers 
containing  mechanical  wood  should  never  be  employed 
for  work  which  is  to  last.  Cheap  reprints  of  standard 
works  are  sometimes  printed  on  such  paper,  but  it  is  a 
very  doubtful  economy  on  the  part  of  the  publisher. 


5 


CHAPTER  XIII 


DEFECTS  AND  REMEDIES 

MANY  users  of  paper  look  upon  that  material  as  being 
perfectly  inert  and  stable,  always  of  the  same  quality, 
and  any  defect  which  may  arise  remediable  only  by 
changing  the  paper.  Unfortunately,  the  printer  who 
uses  the  paper  for  letterpress,  lithographic,  or  ruling 
purposes,  finds  that  paper  is  not  unchangeable,  and 
when  work  has  to  be  registered  upon  the  paper  diffi- 
culties often  arise,  and  exchange  is  not  always  possible. 

The  principal  difficulties  arise  from  stretching, 
cockling,  creasing,  from  the  surface  lifting  or  picking, 
from  the  paper  being  out  of  square,  from  electricity 
contained  in  the  paper,  and  from  loose  particles  coming 
away  from  the  paper  in  the  form  of  fluff.  In  addition 
there  are  difficulties  in  getting  colour  to  dry  upon 
certain  papers,  and  in  obtaining  a solid  impression  or 
continuous  line  from  printed  or  ruled  matter. 

Reference  to  the  chapter  on  machine-made  papers 
will  serve  to  give  the  clue  to  some  of  the  difficulties, 
and  may  suggest  the  remedy.  The  pulp,  diluted  with 
a large  volume  of  water,  consists  of  innumerable  fibres, 
their  length  being  at  least  ioo  times  their  diameter, 
and  as  is  the  case  of  all  water-borne  bodies  travelling 
in  a fast  stream,  they  take  up  the  position  in  which 
their  length  is  parallel  to  the  direction  of  flow.  The 
side  shake  of  the  wire  alters  the  position  of  some  of 
the  fibres,  and  although  the  alteration  is  permanent, 

66 


DEFECTS  AND  REMEDIES 


67 


the  majority  of  fibres  remain  in  a position  parallel  to  the 
machine  direction  of  the  web  of  paper.  Most  machine- 
made  papers  are  dried  on  the  heated  cylinders  of  the 
paper  machine,  the  diameters  of  the  cylinders  being 
arranged  to  allow  for  the  consequent  contraction  of  the 
web,  but  the  fibres  are  not  given  the  opportunity  to 
adjust  themselves  as  in  the  case  of  air-dried  papers. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  papermaking 
fibres  may  expand  in  diameter  to  the  extent  of  20  per 
cent.,  but  only  one  per  cent,  in  length,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  expansion  will  show  itself  chiefly  in  one 
direction,  for  the  majority  of  fibres  lie  side  by  side. 
Fortunately  the  full  expansion  does  not  take  place. 
Paper  which  is  properly  matured  contains  water 
equal  to  7 per  cent,  of  its  weight.  Without  this 
moisture,  paper  would  be  brittle,  and  when  this  amount 
is  exceeded  the  paper  expands.  But  paper,  as  it 
leaves  the  calender  rolls  of  the  paper  machine,  contains 
less  than  7 per  cent,  of  water.  It  is  essential  that  all 
the  water  should  be  dried  out  of  the  paper,  and  the 
paper  is  sometimes  reeled  almost  bone-dry,  but  if  the 
paper  is  to  be  super-calendered  it  is  damped  before 
reeling,  and  left  until  the  paper  mellows  before  calender- 
ing. Many  papers  are  cut  and  packed  without  much 
opportunity  for  maturing,  that  is,  as  regards  paper, 
attaining  a degree  of  stability  which  should  be  main- 
tained during  its  manipulation  by  the  printer,  and,  it  is 
hoped,  during  the  remainder  of  its  career. 

All  papers  have  some  spaces  between  the  fibres, 
sometimes  partly  filled  with  sizing  and  loading,  but 
always  containing  some  air  space,  the  amount  depend- 
ing upon  the  density  of  the  paper.  Heavy  or  dense 
papers  and  light  or  bulky  papers  are  the  extremes, 
30  to  70  per  cent,  of  air  space  being  examples  of 
the  two  ends  of  the  scale.  The  fibres,  when  expanding, 


68 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


fill  some  of  the  air  spaces  between  the  fibres,  and 
the  expansion  can  never  extend  to  the  20  per  cent, 
mentioned.  Experiments  carried  out  on  a litho.  paper, 
36  lb.  royal,  showed  the  maximum  expansion  from 
absorption  of  moisture  to  be  2 J per  cent.,  but  papers  do 
not  expand  as  much  as  this  in  working,  or  register 
work  would  be  extremely  difficult. 

Expansion,  or  stretching  as  it  is  usually  termed, 
is  caused  by  absorption  of  moisture  by  the  finished 
paper  from  the  atmosphere.  The  atmosphere  always 
contains  some  moisture,  the  amount  varying  not  only 
from  day  to  day,  but  from  hour  to  hour.  When  there 
is  an  excess  of  moisture  in  the  air,  as  on  wet  days 
or  when  fogs  occur,  paper  will  readily  absorb  the 
extra  moisture,  and  the  absorption  will  be  accompanied 
by  expansion  of  the  sheet,  principally  across  the  web, 
or  as  it  is  generally  termed,  in  the  cross  direction. 
This  propensity  of  paper  really  points  to  the  remedy. 
Paper  should  be  matured  and  kept  in  that  state,  or 
to  put  it  in  other  words,  it  should  contain  an  amount  of 
moisture  which  is  neither  increased  nor  diminished. 

Few  printers  treat  the  machine-room,  letterpress  or 
lithographic,  or  the  ruling-room  as  places  where  scientific 
conditions  should  be  maintained.  The  use  of  the  wet 
and  dry  bulb  thermometers  in  other  factories  is  for  a 
definite  purpose,  to  indicate  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  to  guide  in  regulation  of  temperature  and  humidity, 
in  order  that  the  manufacturing  processes  may  be  carried 
out  under  scientific  conditions.  But  the  machine-room 
of  the  printer,  closed  for  more  than  half  its  time,  heated 
perhaps  by  hot  water  or  steam  pipes,  sometimes  hot, 
sometimes  cold,  in  wet  weather  damp,  in  summer 
alternately  very  dry  and  damp,  what  wonder  if  paper 
expands,  contracts,  and  causes  trouble  at  machine. 

The  establishments  where  scientific  conditions  are 


DEFECTS  AND  REMEDIES 


69 


observed  reap  the  benefit  in  increased  output,  because 
less  work  is  spoiled  by  bad  register,  and  less  time 
is  spent  in  getting  work  to  register.  Even  with  the 
regulation  of  atmosphere  suggested  by  the  use  of  the 
dry  and  wet  bulb  thermometers  or  hygrometer,  the 
paper  must  be  matured  in  the  machine-room , that  is,  the 
paper  must  be  exposed  in  order  to  allow  it  to  absorb 
moisture  if  too  dry,  and  to  part  with  moisture  if  too 
damp,  so  that  the  paper  may  be  as  stable  as  possible 
while  the  condition  of  the  machine-room  remains 
constant.  It  is  important  that  the  amount  of  atmos- 
pheric moisture  should  remain  constant,  and  printers’ 


Fig.  12. — Ball  Frame  for  Hanging  Paper. 


engineers  will  advise  on  the  means  of  attaining  this 
end. 

Various  methods  may  be  adopted  for  suspending 
paper.  In  some  cases  the  paper  is  hung  over  lines, 
about  a quire  at  a time,  exposed  to  the  atmosphere 
and  dust  of  the  machine- room.  Hanging  frames  are 
supplied  by  vendors  of  printers’  supplies,  in  which 
the  paper  is  clipped  by  a ball  or  swinging  lever, 
and  about  a quire  is  held  in  each  of  the  clips,  a 
perpendicular  position  minimising  the  danger  of  dirt. 
By  use  of  these  frames  a large  quantity  of  paper  can 
be  treated  in  a comparatively  small  space.  The 
“ Swift  ” machine  is  another  method  of  maturing 


;o 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


paper.  The  claim  made  for  the  machine  is  that  it 
matures  large  quantities  of  paper  in  a short  time. 


The  machine  consists  of  two  sets  of  fans,  enclosed  by 
iron  framing,  driven  by  motor  attached  or  by  existing 


Fig.  13. — “Swift”  Paper  Curing  Machine. 


DEFECTS  AND  REMEDIES 


7 


motive  power,  some  four  to  six  reams  of  paper  being 
suspended  in  ball  clip  frames  in  the  space  between 
the  two  sets  of  fans.  The  air  of  the  machine-room 
is  circulated  by  the  fans  rapidly  through  the  paper, 
and  maturing  takes  place  in  two  or  three  hours. 

All  paper,  after  it  has  been  matured,  must  be 
stacked,  a board  and  a heavy  weight  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  stack,  and  the  edges  protected  from  getting 
dirty. 

Stretching  takes  place  when  paper  is  subjected  to 
tension  or  rolling.  All  cylinder  printing  machines 
exert  these  strains,  from  the  pull  of  the  cylinder  and 
from  the  printing  surface.  Difficulty  in  register  will 
be  experienced  when  a paper  stretches  much  under 
tension,  but  it  is  not  so  great  a trouble  as  the 
expansion  already  referred  to.  All  papers  are  elastic, 
and  if  stretched  just  within  the  bounds  of  the  breaking 
strain  of  the  paper,  will  show  some  elongation,  per- 
manent or  temporary.  If  the  paper  returns  to  its 
original  length  there  is  no  permanent  stretch,  but  that 
is  seldom  found  in  practice.  The  greater  expansion 
of  paper  is  in  the  cross  direction,  and  the  direction  of 
greater  stretch  of  the  sheet  coincides  with  that  of  the 
larger  expansion. 

Careful  tests  of  good  litho.  papers  on  the  Leunig 
Paper  Tester  show  them  to  have  a mean  temporary 
stretch  of  2\  per  cent,  in  the  machine  direction,  with 
a stretch  that  is  permanent  of  '68  per  cent.  The 
figures  for  the  cross  direction  of  the  paper  are  4 per 
cent,  and  per  cent,  respectively.  It  is  the  per- 

manent stretch  that  may  cause  inconvenience,  but  the 
figures  quoted  must  not  be  taken  as  an  indication 
of  what  takes  place  when  printing.  A properly  ad- 
justed machine  does  not  exert  the  tension  that  would 
be  necessary  to  obtain  the  percentage  of  elongation 


72 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


shown  above.  The  fact  that  lithographers  prefer  papers 
cut  with  the  cross  direction  coincident  with  the  nar- 
rower dimension  of  the  sheet  is  sufficient  proof  that  it  is 
not  the  machine  tension  that  is  dreaded  in  register  work. 

Writing  and  most  printing  papers,  which  may  or 
may  not  be  printed  in  more  than  one  colour,  are 
frequently  cut  two  ways  of  the  webs,  that  is,  a 30  by 
40  inch  paper,  if  cut  from  a web  of  70  inches  net 
width,  is  cut  without  waste  by  cutting  sheets  30  inches 
wide  from  one  part  and  40-inch  sheets  from  the 
remainder  of  the  reel.  All  papers  on  which  register 
work  is  to  be  printed  must  be  cut  with  the  same 
machine  direction.  In  ordering  paper  which  is  not 
generally  used  for  work  in  several  printings,  the  printer 
should  be  careful  to  point  out  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  intended,  and  ask  that  the  instruction  shall,  if 
necessary,  be  passed  on  to  the  papermaker. 

Cockling  in  paper  is  caused  by  the  paper  being 
drier  or  damper  than  the  atmosphere,  and  shows  that 
there  is  unequal  expansion  of  the  sheets,  and  exposure 
as  detailed  above  should  be  tried  as  a remedy.  Card- 
boards which  are  cockled  may  or  may  not  improve 
upon  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  The  thicker  the 
cardboard  the  less  likely  it  is  to  alter  its  shape. 
Usually  the  fault  will  have  arisen  through  severe 
drying  under  tension,  stretching  the  boards,  and 
drying  while  unequally  stretched.  The  cockling  and 
wavy  edges  of  boards  are  frequently  found  to  be 
permanent  faults. 

Wavy  edges  to  paper,  if  at  the  feed  edge,  will 
frequently  cause  bad  creasing,  from  which  damage  to 
the  printing  surface  may  result.  Creasing  from  defects 
of  the  machine,  make-ready,  or  printing  surface  must 
not  be  visited  upon  the  papermaker.  If  the  paper  will 
not  respond  to  exposure  to  air,  feeding  the  narrow  way 


DEFECTS  AND  REMEDIES 


7 3 


of  the  sheet  may  overcome  the  difficulty,  or,  if  the  size 
of  the  machine  permits  it,  cutting  the  paper  in  half  and 
rearranging  the  forme  or  other  printing  surface  and 
putting  on  an  extra  feeder. 

Art  and  other  coated  papers  which  have  the  coating 
fixed  to  the  paper  with  glue  in  addition  to  the  liability 
to  wavy  edges,  may  be  troublesome  by  reason  of  the 
surface  lifting  or  picking.  The  latter  fault  is  caused 
by  the  coating  being  insecurely  fastened  to  the  body 
paper,  the  trouble  being  temporary  or  permanent. 
Storing  the  paper  in  a damp  place  will  weaken  the 
adhesive  properties  of  the  glue,  and  the  coating  will 
not  stand  the  pull  exerted  by  the  printing  surface,  but 
will  come  away  in  places.  The  paper  may  be  improved 
by  suspending  it  to  dry  off  the  excess  of  moisture,  but 
if  heated  air  is  used,  the  temperature  should  not  exceed 
90°  Fahr.  Newly  coated  papers  may  cause  trouble, 
owing  to  the  adhesive  not  being  quite  hard,  and  keeping 
in  stock  for  a fair  length  of  time,  a month  or  two,  may 
result  in  an  entirely  satisfactory  issue.  But  if  the 
papers  must  be  used,  maturing  as  already  described, 
with  a careful  use  of  heat,  will  usually  remove  the 
trouble  altogether.  Slight  modification  of  the  ink  may 
be  necessary,  and  should  be  tried  before  condemning 
the  paper  altogether. 

It  will  be  found  occasionally  that  the  coating  is  not 
properly  fixed  to  the  paper,  owing  to  insufficient  glue, 
or  a soft-sized  body  paper  being  used.  Damp  the 
thumb  and  press  on  the  coated  paper,  lifting  it  a few 
seconds  after.  If  a large  part  or  the  whole  of  the 
coating  comes  away  the  coating  is  at  fault.  Crumple 
a piece  of  the  paper,  treating  it  rather  severely,  and 
note  the  amount  of  coating  which  has  left  the  paper 
when  flattened  out  again.  A large  amount  of  dust 
indicates  bad  coating.  Comparative  tests  should  be 


7 4 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


carried  out,  a sample  known  to  be  satisfactory  being 
tried  by  the  side  of  the  suspected  sample. 

Fortunately  papermakers  do  not  often  offend  by 
sending  supplies  which  are  out  of  the  square.  It  does, 
however,  sometimes  occur  that  one  edge  of  the  paper 
is  not  quite  true  ; folding  a sheet  in  half,  with  the  short 
edges  coincident,  will  show  the  extent  of  deviation  from 
squareness.  For  ordinary  purposes  it  may  not  be 
material  if  one  edge  of  the  paper  is  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
out,  but  if  the  sheet  has  to  be  backed  up,  care  must  be 
taken  to  feed  the  longer  side  into  the  grippers  and  to 
place  the  side  lay,  when  backing  up,  at  the  opposite 
side  exactly  at  the  same  point  as  when  first  fed.  This, 
of  course,  is  the  printers  rule,  and  in  such  cases  it  must 
be  rigidly  observed.  When  paper  is  fed  to  the  narrow 
edge,  as  when  two  sheets  of  demy  are  laid  on  a double 
demy  machine,  the  square  edge  must  be  the  lay  edge, 
or  the  register  of  the  backing  forme  will  be  impossible. 
For  colour  work  the  only  safe  rule  is  to  trim  the  two 
lay  edges  of  all  the  paper,  and,  if  necessary,  to  use  a 
larger  paper  to  allow  for  the  trim. 

Electricity  in  paper  causes  delay  in  feeding,  the 
sheets  sticking  together,  necessitating  an  undue  use  of 
the  cylinder  stop.  As  the  paper  is  reeled  at  the  end 
of  the  papermaking  machine,  electric  sparks  are 
frequently  to  be  observed,  owing  to  the  electricity 
generated  by  friction  of  the  dry  paper.  A large 
quantity  of  the  electricity  is  extracted,  but  some  thin 
papers  with  high  surface  will  retain  a fair  amount,  and 
sheets  cling  together.  Paper  which  has  been  exposed 
for  maturing  will  not  give  this  trouble,  and  thick 
papers,  even  if  electrified,  do  not  usually  call  for  special 
treatment.  Elaborate  methods  have  been  suggested 
for  discharging  the  electricity  in  the  paper,  but  it  is  a 
difficult  matter,  and  the  most  satisfactory  plan  is  to  set 


DEFECTS  AND  REMEDIES 


7 5 


aside  the  reams  which  are  troublesome,  and  in  time  the 
electricity  will  disperse.  The  use  of  automatic  feeding 
mechanism  is  sometimes  quoted  as  a cure  for  this  trouble. 

Papers  which  are  loose  in  texture  are  usually  soft- 
sized,  and  thus,  having  comparatively  little  size  to  hold 
the  fibres  together,  will  give  off  fluff  or  dust,  consisting 
of  small  fibres,  as  soon  as  the  paper  is  subjected  to 
friction,  even  of  the  lightest  description.  Such  paper 
in  its  passage  through  the  printing  machine  gradually 
deposits  its  fibrous  dust  upon  the  printing  surface,  the 
rollers  take  it  from  there  to  the  ink  distributing  surface, 
and  the  whole  of  the  inking  and  printing  becomes  foul. 
Such  papers  are  extremely  difficult  for  lithographic 
printing,  and  the  letterpress  printer  consumes  most  of 
such  papers.  Soft  papers  with  the  mill  cut  are  slightly 
rough  and  give  off  dust,  and  trimming  a clean  edge 
reduces  the  liability  to  fluff,  but  cleaning  up  at  machine 
(forme,  rollers,  and  ink  slab  or  drum)  will  be  necessary 
more  frequently  than  is  usual.  When  the  machine 
is  stopped  for  washing  up,  all  parts  of  the  machine 
carriage  which  can  be  reached  should  be  wiped  free 
from  dust,  as  the  accumulation  will  gradually  find  its 
way  to  the  rollers  when  the  machine  is  in  motion. 

The  proper  ink  for  the  paper  will  prove  the  solution 
for  difficulties  in  printing  on  hard  papers,  and  also  on 
very  soft  papers.  It  is  outside  the  scope  of  this  work 
to  deal  with  printing  inks,  but  in  regard  to  coated 
papers  it  will  be  found  that  all  such  papers  do  not 
behave  alike.  Some  take  the  ink  readily  and  retain 
the  fullness  of  colour,  while  others  soak  up  the  varnish 
and  leave  the  dry  colour  on  the  surface.  The  latter 
fault  is  owing  to  the  absorbency  of  the  body  paper, 
and  ink  must  be  treated  so  that  the  absorbency  of  the 
paper  is  satisfied,  and  yet  the  colour  and  medium 
remain  more  on  the  surface  of  the  paper. 


;6 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Ruling  on  papers  with  hard  surface  is  rendered  less 
difficult  by  the  use  of  a small  amount  of  gall  in  the 
ink.  For  hand-made  papers  the  ink  always  requires 
such  manipulation,  while  for  other  tub-sized  papers  a 
little  gum  arabic  in  addition  to  the  gall  will  render 
even  ruling  more  easily  attainable.  In  ruling  engine- 
sized papers  a small  amount  of  gum  arabic  and 
carbonate  of  soda  (ordinary  washing  soda)  will  make 
the  colours  lie  better.  While  all  work  can  be  done  on 
the  pen  machine,  papers  with  soft  surfaces,  blottings, 
duplicating,  metallic,  and  coated  papers  generally,  will 
give  the  disc  machine  opportunity  to  prove  its  superiority 
for  this  class  of  work.  Cockled  papers  and  very  thin 
papers  can  be  dealt  with  successfully  at  the  ruling 
machine  by  a little  manipulation  of  the  pens  and  feed. 

Although  rolling,  hot  or  cold,  may  be  effectively 
used  for  giving  finish  to  the  printed  work,  the  paper  is 
subjected  to  such  great  pressure  that  it  is  liable  to 
stretch.  As  pointed  out  earlier  in  the  chapter, 
stretching  of  paper  is  not  equal  in  both  directions  of 
the  sheet,  and  it  is  advisable,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
strength  of  the  paper,  to  roll  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  paper  was  made  and  rolled  in  the  papermaking 
machine.  Discover  the  machine  direction  by  the 
method  described  on  page  86,  and  feed  the  paper  to 
the  rolling  machine  in  the  same  way  as  it  left  the 
papermaking  machine. 

Tub-sized  papers  may  contain  or  develop  a fault 
which  will  not  occur  in  engine-sized  papers,  that  of 
unpleasant  smell.  A preservative  of  some  kind  is 
frequently  added  to  the  sizing  solution,  but  if  the 
gelatine  has  commenced  to  decompose  the  smell  will 
be  at  least  unpleasant.  Coated  papers  contain  glue 
in  the  coating  mixture,  and  are  liable  to  the  same  fault. 
Printers  should  be  careful  when  buying  job  lots  of  tub- 


DEFECTS  AND  REMEDIES 


77 


sized  or  coated  papers  that  the  cause  of  the  inclusion 
in  the  job  list  is  not  smell,  for  a customer  cannot  be 
expected  to  accept  a big  parcel  of  printed  matter  for 
circulation  which  is  offensive  to  one  of  the  finer  senses, 
and  therefore  not  likely  to  prove  persuasive  to  the 
recipients. 

Deterioration  of  paper  has  been  dealt  with  already, 
but  there  are  faults  unwittingly  developed  in  some 
paper  which  can  be  avoided  by  the  application  of  a 
little  forethought.  The  colouring  matters  of  papers 
are  affected  by  various  things.  Some  blue  colours  are 
discharged  (bleached)' when  acid  in  any  form  comes  in 
contact  with  them,  others  behave  similarly  when  alkali 
is  encountered.  Some  buff  papers  are  altered  in  shade 
or  even  in  colour  by  the  same  agents,  and  other  colours 
are  affected  by  some  but  not  by  all  acids.  It  is  not 
proposed  to  examine  the  composition  of  the  colours 
used  by  the  papermaker,  but  to  point  to  instances 
where  care  is  required.  When  the  printer  or  manu- 
facturing stationer  is  covering  strawboards,  boxboards, 
or  millboards  with  coloured  papers,  paste  or  glue  may 
be  employed  as  adhesive,  and  these  are  always  liable 
to  become  acid.  To  avoid  change  of  colour  the  use  of 
freshly  prepared  paste  or  glue  should  be  adopted. 
Strawboards  frequently  contain  a certain  amount  of 
free  alkali,  and  the  colours  of  papers  or  cloth  mounted 
upon  them  may  be  affected.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
change  the  paper  to  one  which  is  unaffected  by  the 
strawboard,  and  if  this  is  not  feasible,  a change  of 
board  may  be  necessary.  It  is  not  practicable  to 
neutralise  the  alkali,  as  fresh  trouble  may  be  caused, 
and  an  unsatisfactory  result  be  obtained.  Before 
starting  on  a big  job,  tests  should  be  made  with  the 
actual  materials  so  that  no  serious  loss  by  spoilage  or 
stoppage  may  occur, 


78 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


All  knives,  whether  circular  or  straight,  must  be 
kept  keenly  sharpened  in  order  to  produce  clean  edges. 
Soft  cards  and  papers  give  more  trouble  than  moderately 
hard  stock  when  cutting  in  a guillotine.  Some 
materials  should  be  cut  by  the  rotary  cutter  when 
exact  measurements  are  essential,  for  although  it  may 
take  longer,  for  index  cards  all  supplies  must  be 
trimmed  exactly  to  the  same  dimensions,  and  the  very 
hard  index  boards  are  liable  to  be  cut  irregularly  by 
the  guillotine. 

When  sheets  are  ruled  or  printed,  and  are  after- 
wards to  be  bound,  the  printed  or  ruled  horizontal  lines 
should  coincide  with  the  machine  direction,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  expressed,  should  run  with  the  grain  of  the 
paper.  The  stitching  and  the  binding  which  secure 
the  leaves  will  then  be  fully  operative,  whereas  if  the 
paper  is  held  with  the  back  of  the  book  parallel  to  the 
machine  direction,  the  leaves  are  more  liable  to  break 
away  from  the  binding. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  RIGHT  PAPER 

Selection  of  paper  to  suit  a particular  job  calls  for 
experience  in  handling  both  the  finished  work  and  the 
plain  paper.  Judging  papers  as  being  equal  to  patterns 
or  samples,  and  forming  an  opinion  of  comparative 
values,  are  also  to  be  gained  only  by  long  experience. 
A few  guiding  principles,  without  making  a royal  road, 
may  render  the  journey  somewhat  less  laborious. 

The  varieties  of  papers  already  described — writings, 
printings,  coated,  and  other  papers — are  accompanied 
by  indications  of  their  general  purposes,  and  the 
inexperienced  should  be  kept  from  making  bad 
blunders.  Common  sense  will  prevent  the  mistake 
which  is  still  perpetrated  of  printing  a half-tone  block 
on  a laid  paper,  or  a paper  with  a heavy  watermark. 
The  laid  lines  and  the  watermark  show  up  through  the 
half-tone  impression  and  spoil  the  picture.  Half-tone 
work  demands  a perfectly  smooth  paper,  coated  or  a 
good  super-calendered  paper  being  the  best. 

Very  few  papers  are  identical  in  finish  on  both 
sides  of  the  sheet,  and  it  should  be  the  first  thing 
taught  to  the  apprentice  that  all  one-sided  work  should 
be  printed  on  the  right  side  of  the  paper.  A matter 
which  is  seldom  referred  to  is  the  position  of  the  water- 
mark. When  cutting  paper,  the  paper  should  not  be 
turned  so  that  in  a ream  one-half  of  the  paper  has  the 
watermark  reading  correctly,  while  on  the  other  half  it 


79 


So 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


is  upside  down.  If  the  paper  is  ruled  or  printed  in  the 
sheet,  the  pens  and  type  or  transfers  should  be  arranged 
to  keep  the  watermark  the  right  way.  In  the  case  of 
folded  and  stitched  work  this  is  not  possible  without 
special  watermarking,  but  for  all  stationery  these  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken. 

When  judging  paper  or  cards  it  must  always  be 
remembered  that  a sheet  may  compare  very  badly  with 
a small  piece,  therefore  when  making  comparisons  the 
sizes  of  the  samples  of  paper  or  card  should  be  cut  to 
the  same  size.  Only  by  adopting  this  practice  can 
weight,  colour,  and  texture  be  judged  accurately. 

Choosing  a paper  suitable  for  the  work  in  hand  is 
simplified  when  one  knows  what  is  used  for  similar 
work.  For  ledgers,  account  books,  and  all  work  of 
that  character,  a strong,  tough,  well-finished  paper,  cap- 
able of  taking  writing  ink  easily,  and  able  to  bear  ink 
after  erasure  should  be  used.  An  opaque  all-rag,  azure 
laid,  tub-sized  paper,  of  moderate  weight,  34  lb.  in 
writing  medium,  is  the  most  suitable  paper.  For  loose- 
leaf  ledgers  a thinner,  tougher  paper  is  desirable,  as  the 
leaves  must  lie  closely  and  withstand  the  strain  of 
frequent  handling.  For  cheap  account  book  work 
engine-sized  papers  are  obtainable,  very  fair  in  appear- 
ance, but  not  possessing  all  the  qualities  of  the  better 
paper  specified,  or  the  extra  cost  of  the  latter  could  not 
be  justified. 

The  ideal  paper  for  printed  books  is  an  all-rag 
paper,  moderately  sized,  with  antique  or  rough  finish, 
excellent  in  handling  and  appearance,  but  the  price 
precludes  its  use  for  any  but  the  most  luxurious 
editions.  For  ordinary  bookwork,  white  paper  with 
dull  or  machine  finish,  quite  opaque,  substance  equal 
to  30  lb.  demy,  provides  a serviceable  paper  where  no 
illustrations,  or  line  blocks  only,  appear.  If  half-tone 


THE  RIGHT  PATER 


8l 


illustrations  are  included,  a super-calendered  paper, 
slightly  toned,  is  very  suitable.  When  half-tones  of 
very  fine  grain  are  used,  it  may  be  necessary  to  print 
on  art  paper  throughout,  or  the  illustrations  printed  on 
art  paper  and  the  body  of  the  work  on  a printing 
paper  of  exactly  the  same  shade  as  the  coated  paper. 
Mixture  of  shades  in  books  should  be  avoided  as  far 
as  possible.  The  practice  of  printing  sections  of 
magazines  on  different  papers  is  growing,  but  is  to  be 
deprecated. 

For  works  which  have  to  make  bulky  volumes  for 
a comparatively  few  pages,  featherweight  papers  are 
employed.  These  in  80  lb.  quad  crown  will  usually 
be  chosen,  wove  or  laid  as  fancy  dictates.  Some  of 
the  wholesale  stationers  state  on  the  samples  the  thick- 
ness or  bulk  of  a volume  of  a definite  number  of  pages, 
this  information  serving  as  a guide  in  selecting  paper 
to  produce  the  thickness  required  in  a volume.  When 
a series  of  books  is  issued  it  is  sometimes  desired  to 
have  all  the  volumes  of  equal  bulk.  This  is  attained 
by  adopting  papers  of  different  thicknesses ; thus  a 
book  of  500  pages  is  printed  on  a paper  about  half 
the  thickness  of  that  used  for  a volume  of  256  pages. 
The  range  of  substances  in  which  papers  are  supplied 
renders  this  arrangement  comparatively  easy. 

The  large  variety  of  fancy  papers  for  jobbing  work 
calls  for  little  comment.  Avoid  hard  papers  for 
programmes  unless  there  is  plenty  of  time  for  the  ink 
to  dry,  or  gloves  will  bear  the  printer’s  imprint.  For 
outdoor  functions  coloured  papers,  if  employed  for 
programmes  or  similar  jobs,  must  not  be  affected  by 
moisture.  Colour  may  decorate  summer  costumes  if 
the  programmes  printed  on  coloured  paper  are  sat 
upon.  Art  paper,  too,  is  unsuitable  for  outdoor  expo- 
sure in  our  changeable  climate,  and  its  use  is  to  be  dis- 
6 


82  PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 

couraged  for  sport  programme  work.  Coloured  poster 

papers  must  be  unaffected  by  rain.  Many  coloured 

papers  render  printed  matter  exceedingly  difficult  to 
read  by  artificial  light. 

The  incongruity  of  a common  cover  paper  to  a 
booklet  printed  on  a good  printing  paper,  or  vice  versa , 
is  to  be  avoided.  Select  papers  for  the  inside  and 
cover  bearing  both  in  mind,  and  if  expense  is  to  be 
considered,  a compromise  in  quality  may  be  effected. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  persuade  the  consumer  to 
select  the  very  best  paper  for  office  stationery,  but  the 
choice  should  be  made  with  a view  to  create  a good 
impression.  Remember  always,  too,  that  printing 
demands  good  paper  to  produce  the  most  satisfactory 
effect. 

For  lithography  the  work  in  hand  frequently 
dictates  the  quality  of  paper  to  be  used.  Offset 
printing,  certainly,  has  enabled  the  lithographer  to 
print  on  papers  unsuitable  for  direct  stone  printing, 
but  in  all  work  the  right  paper  produces  the  best 
result.  Fluffy  papers,  such  as  featherweights,  however, 
are  impossible  for  lithography.  Loose  of  texture,  with 
a tendency  to  shed  fibre,  the  paper  clogs  the  printing 
surface,  and  in  such  circumstances  the  best  work  is 
unattainable.  Charts  and  maps  are  printed  on  strong, 
durable  papers,  and  the  manufacturers’  chart  papers 
will  be  found  to  conform  to  the  description  given. 

Colour  work  requires  a paper  which  will  give  full 
effect  to  the  colours  superimposed  upon  its  surface, 
white  paper  being  most  suitable  for  the  purpose,  the 
kind  of  paper  employed  being  governed  by  the 
destination  of  the  printed  work.  Chromo  paper,  litho. 
paper,  M.G.  poster  paper,  will  be  used  according  to 
the  method  of  exhibition  of  the  work,  as  calendars, 
labels,  book  illustrations,  or  posters.  Work  which  is 


THE  RIGHT  PAPER 


83 


to  be  varnished  may  be  printed  on  litho.  paper,  which 
is  sized  and  varnished  after  printing,  or  a varnishable 
paper,  one  that  is  hard-sized  and  finished  in  the  manu- 
facture, may  be  used,  varnish  being  applied  without 
previous  sizing,  as  soon  as  the  ink  is  dry.  A thick 
litho.  paper  is  seldom  as  strong  as  a thinner  one,  and 
with  the  greater  thickness  goes  more  liability  for  the 
surface  to  pluck. 

The  thinnest  and  commonest  papers  should  not  be 
chosen  for  set-off  or  interleaving  sheets.  Although 
many  papers,  when  printed,  absorb  the  ink  and  hasten 
the  drying,  it  must  be  remembered  that  printer’s  ink, 
like  paint,  dries  by  oxidation,  and  the  more  freely  air 
can  reach  the  film  of  ink  the  quicker  and  more  thorough 
will  be  the  drying.  A rough  surfaced  paper  is  most 
suitable  for  interleaving,  as  it  will  not  stick  to  the 
printed  matter,  and  it  allows  air  to  penetrate  between 
the  sheets.  For  interleaving  colour  work  in  which 
bronze  is  used  at  all,  a paper  of  fair  quality  must  be 
used,  for  common  papers  may  contain  chemical  residues 
which  will  affect  the  brightness  of  the  bronzed  work. 
Paper  equal  to  24  lb.  demy  will  serve  admirably,  and 
may  be  used  repeatedly. 

Proofs  should  be  printed  upon  the  paper  which  is  to 
be  used  for  the  job,  if  that  is  possible.  Galley  proofs 
require  a paper  which  is  moderately  sized,  not  too  soft, 
or  corrections  made  in  ink  may  be  undecipherable 
from  the  spreading  of  the  ink. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  right 
and  wrong  sides  of  paper,  and  little  excuse  can  be 
made  for  the  printer  who  uses  the  wrong  side.  Flat 
papers  are  usually  packed  with  the  right  side  upper- 
most ; if  the  paper  is  folded,  the  right  side  is  outwards. 
There  is  a slight  diversity  of  practice  among  paper- 
makers,  but  the  general  rule  is  as  stated.  In  a very 


84 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


few  cases  of  watermarked  papers  the  watermark  can 
be  read  from  both  sides  of  the  sheet,  but  the  general 
rule  is  that  the  right  side  of  the  sheet  is  that  from 
which  the  watermark  can  be  read.  In  machine-made 
papers  it  is  the  upper  side  of  the  paper  as  it  is  made, 
but  in  hand-mades  the  right  side  is  the  under  side 
which  receives  the  watermark.  The  watermark  is  in 
reverse  upon  the  mould  or  the  dandy  roll,  and  is  fixed 
on  the  impressionable  pulp  by  slight  compression  or 
displacement  of  the  fibres.  In  papers  without  water- 
marks it  may  be  taken  that  the  smoother  side  is  the 
right  side.  The  wrong  side  of  machine-made  papers 
bears  the  impress  of  the  woven  wire  upon  which  they 
were  made.  The  wire  mark  is  fixed  by  various  means, 
such  as  the  pressure  of  the  dandy  roll,  the  action  of  the 
suction  boxes,  and  the  pressure  of  the  couch  rolls. 
Blotting  paper,  although  not  subjected  to  all  these 
forces,  shows  the  wire  mark  so  plainly  as  to  serve  as  a 
guide  to  what  one  may  expect  to  find  in  other  papers 
which  are  more  highly  finished.  Looking  along  the 
surface  of  the  paper  will  sometimes  reveal  this  mark, 
when  it  is  not  possible  to  detect  it  by  looking  through 
the  sheet.  The  wire  for  hand  moulds  is  much  coarser 
than  the  wire  cloth  of  the  machine,  and  as  the  pressure 
of  the  pulp  is  not  great,  and  the  fibre  is  moderately 
long,  couching  nearly  obliterates  the  woven  wire  mark 
and  makes  it  less  easy  to  distinguish  between  the  right 
and  wrong  sides  of  hand-made  wove  papers.  In  a laid 
mould  the  wires  displace  fibres,  and  the  paper  is 
immeasurably  thinner  at  the  places  where  the  wires 
of  the  mould  occur,  but  these  are  the  only  wire  marks 
on  the  paper.  A dandy  roll  makes  the  laid  wire  marks 
on  the  right  side  of  machine-made  paper  in  addition  to 
the  woven  wire  marks  on  the  wrong  side,  so  the 
distinction  between  right  and  wrong  sides  is  easily 


THE  RIGHT  PAPER 


85 


made  in  machine-made  papers.  The  smooth  side  of 
M.G.  papers  is  the  right  side.  M.G.  poster  papers 
are  rougher  on  the  wrong  side  to  make  the  posting  of 
the  bills  an  easier  matter. 

The  wire  marks  assist  one  in  distinguishing  between 
hand-made  and  machine-made  papers.  It  is  clear 
that  all  machine-made  papers  have  a wire  mark  on  the 
wrong  side,  even  if  laid  or  watermarked.  The  water- 
mark of  the  hand  mould  is  fastened  over  the  wire,  so 
the  watermark  will  never  show  wire  marks.  Looking 
through  the  paper,  observe  whether  the  watermark  has 
any  small  woven  wire  marks  ; if  it  has,  it  is  undoubtedly 
machine-made.  A laid  paper  which  shows  woven  wire 
marks  is  of  course  the  product  of  the  machine. 

Coloured  papers  may  vary  in  shade  on  the  two 
sides.  This  variation  is  more  frequently  seen  in  papers 
which  are  coloured  by  pigments  than  in  those  dyed 
with  aniline  colours.  Blue  papers,  with  ultramarine  in 
their  composition,  tend  to  be  slightly  lighter  on  the 
wrong  side  of  the  sheet.  The  causes  of  this  are 
different  in  hand-made  and  machine-made  papers.  In 
hand-mades  the  colour  has  a tendency  to  gravitate  to 
the  bottom  of  the  mould,  which  is  the  right  side  of  the 
paper,  while  in  machine-made  papers  the  action  of  the 
suction  boxes  is  apt  to  draw  some  of  the  colour  away 
from  the  under  side,  leaving  the  right  side  slightly 
darker.  Thus  difference  in  shade  of  the  two  sides  is 
not  a guide  to  distinguish  between  hand-  and  machine- 
made  papers. 

To  recall  the  methods  of  manufacture.  The  mould 
of  hand-made  papers  receives  a shake  each  way,  felting 
the  fibres  evenly.  The  machine  wire  receives  a side- 
shake  which  is  only  effective  for  a short  period — as 
long  as  the  pulp  is  in  a state  of  suspension — and  as 
soon  as  the  water  has  drained  away  the  shake  ceases 


86 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


to  take  effect,  consequently  the  majority  of  the  fibres 
are  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the  pulp. 
Some  fibres  are  crossed  or  felted  ; but  taking  the  web 
of  paper,  it  is  more  easily  pulled  apart  across  its  width 
than  in  the  direction  of  its  length.  The  fibres  are 
fixed  and  are  dried  in  a state  of  tension,  so  that  the 
fibres  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  (known  as  the 
machine  direction  or  the  grain  of  the  paper)  are  fully 
extended,  and  subsequently  expand  but  little  in  length, 
but  may  do  so  in  width  or  diameter. 

The  direction  of  the  fibres^  serves  to  distinguish 
between  hand-  and  machine-made  papers.  Tearing  a 
piece  of  hand-made  paper  will  result  in  ragged  tears, 
very  similar  both  ways  of  the  sheet.  A piece  of 
machine-made  paper  shows  a ragged  tear  in  one 
direction,  and  a much  straighter  tear  in  the  other. 
The  straighter  tear  is  in  the  machine  direction.  If  a 
circle  about  three  inches  in  diameter  is  cut  from  a 
hand-made  sheet  and  thoroughly  damped  on  one  side, 
the  paper  will  curl  slowly  and  unbend  again.  If  a 
similar  piece  is  cut  from  machine-made  paper  and 
treated  in  the  same  way  it  will  curl  more  quickly  into 
a cylinder  and  remain  rolled  up  for  some  time.  This 
not  only  serves  as  a distinction  between  the  two  papers, 
but,  in  machine-mades,  shows  the  machine  direction 
which  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  of  paper. 
By  marking  the  sheet  before  the  circle  is  cut,  the 
machine  direction  of  the  sheet  can  be  determined. 

Strips  cut  from  the  sheets,  one  from  each  way, 
7 inches  long  by  i inch  wide,  held  between  the  finger 
and  thumb  and  allowed  to  incline  at  an  angle  of  6o°, 
will  behave  differently  according  to  the  method  of  manu- 
facture. Hand-made  strips  will  keep  together,  because 
the  fibres  are  equally  distributed,  while  strips  of  machine- 
made  paper  will  separate,  owing  to  the  difference  in 


THE  RIGHT  PAPER 


87 


the  direction  of  fibres.  The  strips  should  be  inclined 
first  to  the  right  and  then  to  the  left  to  ensure  correct 
conclusions. 

Hand-made  paper  has  four  deckle  edges,  but 
imitation  hand-mades  also  have  these,  and  mould-made 
papers  are  similarly  marked.  Imitation  hand-mades, 
being  machine-made,  are  distinguishable  by  the  means 
enumerated  above,  and  comparison  with  the  edges  of 
known  hand-made  paper  will  be  the  quickest  method 
of  distinguishing  between  real  and  imitation  deckle 
edges. 

Mould-made  papers  are  not  easily  distinguishable 
from  hand-made  papers.  The  deckle  edges  are  not 
always  alike  on  all  four  sides  as  they  are  in  hand-made 
papers.  Testing  on  the  Leunig  machine  (see  page  99), 
they  will  usually  reveal  a difference  which  it  is  not 
possible  to  discover  from  looking  at  the  sheet.  The 
German  paper  experts  declare  it  impossible  to  differ- 
entiate with  certainty  between  the  two  kinds  of  paper, 
while  a papermaker  who  manufactures  both  varieties 
usually  has  but  little  difficulty  in  naming  them 
correctly. 

Comparison  between  Hand-Made,  Mould-Made, 
and  Machine-Made  Papers 

Tests  made  on  Leunig s Machine  {see  page  99), 
Papers  of  same  size  and  substance 


Description  of 

Stronger  Direction. 

Weaker  Direction. 

Mean  of 
Two  Directions. 

Paper. 

Tensile 

Strength. 

Elonga- 

tion. 

Tensile 

Strength. 

Elonga- 

tion. 

Tensile 

Strength. 

Elonga- 

tion. 

Hand-made  - 
Mould-made  - 
Machine-made 

Lb. 

25 '5 
26 -8 
26-5 

Per  cent. 

3 ‘9 

4-8 

37 

Lb. 
22  ’ I 

20-8 

i6-o 

Per  cent. 

5-6 

47 

57 

Lb. 

23-8 

23-8 

21-3 

Per  cent. 

475 

475 

470 

The  figures  given  are  the  mean  results  of  five  tests. 


88 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Tearing  paper  as  a method  of  comparing  strength 
is  one  of  the  simplest  as  well  as  one  of  the  surest 
methods.  Paper  has  to  withstand  tearing  stresses,  and 
the  paper  which  ruptures  with  most  difficulty  is  usually 
the  most  resistant  to  wear.  Tearing  will  reveal 
whether  the  paper  is  composed  of  long  or  short  fibres, 
and  whether  it  is  tough  or  brittle,  and  is  a method  of 
testing  which  requires  no  apparatus. 


CHAPTER  XV 


THE  STOCK  ROOM 

Selection  of  papers  for  stock  purposes  is  not  easy 
to  undertake  for  others,  therefore  this  section  can  only 
summarise  the  information  of  the  earlier  chapters  and 
offer  suggestions. 

The  stock  room  should  not  be  an  out-of-the-way 
room,  dark  and  perhaps  damp,  but  should  be  light, 
with  ample  room  to  move  paper  in  bulk,  so  that  issues 
as  well  as  deliveries  can  be  dealt  with  quickly.  It 
should  be  possible  to  control  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  paper  warehouse  if  the  paper  is 
generally  used  for  register  work.  A dry  room  is 
essential,  or  trouble  will  ensue,  for  in  damp  rooms 
tub-sized  and  coated  papers  will  deteriorate,  highly 
glazed  papers  will  go  back  in  finish,  papers  for  colour 
work  will  be  unreliable,  and  delay  and  loss  will  follow. 

In  a printing  office  where  small  quantities  of  paper 
are  dealt  with,  the  inconvenience  of  carrying  paper  in 
and  out  a few  reams  at  a time  may  not  be  apparent, 
but  considerable  time  is  wasted  and  some  loss  in  spoiled 
sheets  results  from  such  a method.  Quantities  of  paper 
should  be  dealt  with  as  expeditiously,  and  with  as  little 
handling,  as  possible.  Transporter  trucks  require, 
perhaps,  more  room  than  is  taken  by  a man  or  boy 
lifting  reams,  but  it  deals  with  thirty  reams,  instead  of 
two  at  a time,  and  in  up-to-date  offices  time  is  counted 
as  valuable  as  currency. 


89 


90 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Large  stocks  should  be  kept  in  stacks  ; the  counsel 
of  perfection  being  that  no  paper  should  actually  touch 
the  floor,  but  stand  on  boards  with  a space  beneath. 
If  paper  is  moved  in  and  out  of  the  warehouse  by 
transporter  trucks  it  will  stand  on  the  platforms 
supplied  and  be  available  for  moving  rapidly  to  the 
machine-room.  Smaller  stacks  will  be  ranged  in  racks 
or  on  shelves  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily  accessible,  the 
larger  papers  nearer  the  floor,  and  the  smaller  papers, 
which  can  be  handled  more  easily,  on  the  higher  shelves. 
The  arrangement  in  classes  is  advised,  writings,  print- 
ings, coated,  coloured  papers  having  definite  positions, 
the  sizes  also  being  arranged  for  ease  of  handling. 
Each  section,  size,  and  variety  should  be  clearly  marked 
to  ensure  accuracy  and  economy  in  issue  as  well  as  in 
keeping  stocks  up  to  correct  strength.  A new  arrival 
should  not  be  dumped  down  anywhere,  but  should  take 
its  place  in  the  proper  section,  be  considered  as  valuable 
material,  and  handled  accordingly.  Coated  papers 
generally  and  imitation  art  papers  mark  and  crease  badly 
if  carelessly  handled,  but  if  all  papers  are  treated  care- 
fully it  will  not  be  necessary  to  give  instruction  for 
handling  special  papers. 

Papers  are  received  from  different  mills  packed  in 
different  ways.  If  reams  are  received  in  bales,  it  is 
usual  to  unpack  and  to  stack  in  single  reams,  as  subse- 
quent handling  is  easier  in  the  lighter  weight.  Heavy 
papers  and  boards  are  packed  in  quantities  smaller 
than  reams  to  facilitate  removal  in  and  out,  paper  in 
half  or  quarter  reams,  and  boards  in  packets  of  ioo, 
144,  or  250.  The  method  of  packing  reams  or  parcels 
is  sometimes  excellent,  but  at  other  times  it  leaves 
something  to  be  desired.  If  the  wrappers  are  not 
strong  enough  for  the  paper  contained,  they  break  as 
the  reams  are  moved,  and  the  edges  of  the  paper  are 


THE  STOCK  ROOM 


9 


likely  to  become  damaged.  Fastening  is  done  with 
paper  tape,  webbing,  or  string,  according  to  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  parcels.  Light  and  small  sized 
paper  may  be  fastened  with  paper  tape,  all  sizes  and 
weights  with  webbing  or  cotton  tape,  and  heavy  papers 
with  string.  If  string  be  used,  it  will  be  necessary, 
before  stacking,  to  see  that  the  strings  are  not  greasy. 
If  soiled  string  has  been  used  it  must  be  removed  and 
the  reams  again  fastened,  or  the  grease  will  penetrate 
and  spoil  a portion  of  the  contents. 

Broken  quantities  should  always  be  tied  up,  preferably 
with  webbing,  and  the  quantity  marked  on  the  wrapper, 
correction  being  made  as  quantities  are  withdrawn. 

Letterpress  printers  prepared  to  execute  all  classes 
of  work  must  of  necessity  carry  a more  varied  stock  of 
papers  than  one  who  specialises  in  one  or  two  lines. 
It  is  convenient  to  have  printing  papers  in  several 
qualities  and  weights,  the  sizes  being  governed  by  the 
sizes  of  machines  available.  With  a double  demy 
cylinder  machine  it  is  not  wise  to  stock  quad  demy 
paper ; but  allowing  that  as  the  limit  (a  small  one 
nowadays)  printing  papers  in  double  demy,  double 
crown,  and  royal  will  be  safe  sizes.  Poster  papers, 
both  ordinary  and  M.G.  finish,  should  be  stocked  in 
the  full  size  of  the  capacity  of  the  machines. 

Super-calendered  papers  should  be  carried  in 
comparatively  small  quantities,  unless  they  are  to  be 
used  quickly,  as  high  surfaces  deteriorate  when  stocked 
for  a long  period.  Art  papers  are  better  for  being 
stocked  a reasonable  time,  as  the  coating  becomes 
fixed  and  there  is  less  likelihood  of  picking  at  machine. 
Tinted  papers  are  accumulated  gradually,  the  colours 
and  sizes  most  in  demand  being  placed  in  stock. 
Cover  papers  must  of  course  follow  the  white  papers  for 
sizes  : the  cover  for  demy  works  is  medium,  and  the 


92 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


royal  is  cut  larger  (20 J inches  x 25  \ inches)  to  cover 
an  ordinary  catalogue.  In  this  class  of  paper,  too,  sizes 
and  colours  are  governed  by  prevailing  consumption. 

In  making  a selection  of  writing  papers,  unless 
one  is  a very  large  consumer,  a safe  course  for  the 
better  classes  is  to  make  a selection  of  watermarked 
papers.  There  is  no  virtue  in  a watermark  as  such, 
but  the  wholesale  stationer  is  able  to  keep  known 
papers  up  to  standard,  and  also  is  able  to  meet  all 
reasonable  demands  from  stock.  The  prevailing  sizes 
for  writing  papers  are  foolscap,  post,  large  post,  double 
foolscap  ; for  account  book  work,  demy,  medium,  and 
royal  (in  writing  sizes),  and  imperial.  Writing  papers 
in  cream  wove,  cream  laid,  azure  laid,  yellow  wove 
(another  term  for  azure  wove),  blue  laid,  and  blue  wove 
will  be  required.  It  may  be  necessary  to  keep  a small 
stock  of  hand-made  papers  for  documents  of  importance. 
Banks  in  medium,  large  post,  and  double  foolscap  are 
stocked  if  required.  Engine-sized  writings  are  suitable 
for  much  printed  work,  but  for  stationery  of  good 
appearance  tub-sized  papers  should  be  stocked.  Large 
post  writings  in  18,  21,  23,  and  27  lb.  will  be  useful 
stock,  with  other  sizes  in  equivalent  weights.  Double 
large  post  is  desirable  in  all  engine-sized  writings,  and 
frequently  in  tub-sized  papers,  when  obtainable.  The 
usual  weights  for  bank  papers  are  foolscap  7 lb.,  large 
post  1 1 lb.,  medium  1 3 lb.,  but  thinner  papers  are 
obtainable.  Bond  papers  are  similar  to  banks  but 
heavier  in  substance,  and  experience  will  teach  what 
substances  and  sizes  should  be  stocked.  Account  book 
papers  follow  custom  as  to  weight,  24  lb.  demy,  34  lb. 
medium,1  44  lb.  royal,1  72  lb.  imperial,  and  these  are 

1 Some  mills  make  medium  in  32  and  34  lb.,  and  royal  in  42 
and  44  lb.  ; all  hand-made  papers  are  of  the  customary  weights 
given  above. 


THE  STOCK  ROOM 


93 


usually  azure  or  blue  laid,  tub-sized,  and  air-dried. 
Hand-made  papers  are  necessary  for  many  books  which 
are  in  constant  use,  to  ensure  the  permanence  of  the 
records.  Engine-sized  account  book  papers  are  not 
recommended  for  stock,  although  the  papers  are  suitable 
for  much  work  of  a temporary  nature.  Tinted  writ- 
ings can  be  obtained  in  great  variety,  and  reference  to 
the  sample  books  of  the  wholesale  houses  will  serve 
to  guide  in  making  a safe  stock  selection. 

Only  small  quantities  of  gummed  paper  should  be 
kept,  demy  being  the  usual  size,  and  a paper  weighing 
about  i 8 lb.  per  ream  (ungummed)  is  a fair  quality.  Non- 
curling gummed  paper  is  of  course  the  kind  to  purchase. 

Stock  boards  will  usually  be  royal  in  size.  Good 
qualities  of  pasteboards,  two  substances  of  ivories,  a full 
range  of  pulp  boards  in  various  tints  will  be  a useful 
selection.  Thicker  boards,  useful  for  show  cards,  are 
stocked  in  royal  and  imperial,  one-sided  white  boards, 
one-sided  coated  and  two-sided  coated,  in  io-  and  12- 
sheet  substances,  should  be  kept  in  small  quantities. 

The  lithographer  requires  litho.  papers  of  various 
substances  and  qualities  in  sizes  to  suit  the  machines 
of  his  establishment.  The  lithographer  can  frequently 
transfer  several  jobs  on  to  one  stone  of  the  full  size  of 
the  machine,  and  work  more  economically  than  by  using 
papers  and  machines  of  smaller  sizes.  For  black  work  a 
fair  litho.  paper  in  several  substances  should  be  stocked, 
for  colour  work  a heavier  paper  in  one  or  two  sub- 
stances only,  and  small  quantities  of  plate,  plan,  chart 
and  chromo  papers  will  be  required.  All  the  writings 
and  miscellaneous  papers  mentioned  earlier  will  be  in- 
cluded in  the  stock  warehouse  of  the  lithographer. 

Stock  accounts  should  be  kept  very  carefully. 
Employers  should  insist  that  paper  drawn  for  making 
ready,  for  proofing,  and  for  set-off  sheets  be  accounted 


94 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


for  as  accurately  as  a ream  of  hand-made  paper.  It 
is  only  by  adopting  a system  of  accurate  accounting 
that  the  balance  between  receipts  and  issues  can  be 
maintained.  No  issue  for  replacing  spoiled  sheets 
should  be  made  without  an  entry  to  that  effect  in  the 
stock  ledger.  Whether  a card  index  system  or  a paper 
stock  ledger  with  receipt  and  issue  sides  be  the  method 
of  accounting,  it  should  be  possible  to  check  the  state 
of  the  stock  at  very  short  notice.  The  entries  will  be 
in  this  or  similar  form.  Prices  are  kept  separately, 
unless  it  is  preferred  to  keep  them  with  the  stock 
details. 


Description- — Printing  Double  Demy , 40  lb.  480’s. 

Stock  No.  25.  Purchased  from  Spalding  & Hodge. 


Receipts. 

Issues. 

Date. 

Quantity. 

Date. 

Job 

Quantity. 

Rms. 

Q- 

S. 

No. 

Rms. 

Q- 

s. 

Jan.  1,  1914 

200 

0 

0 

Jan.  3,  1914 

142 

17 

14 

0 

Mar.  1,  „ 

480 

0 

0 

>>  4)  >> 

201 

*53 

10 

0 

At  the  time  of  stocktaking  it  should  not  be  necessary 
to  close  the  stock  room,  but  if  done  gradually,  starting 
a few  days  before  the  end  of  the  year  (or  other  period), 
the  stocks  are  taken  and  each  stack  as  checked  is 
marked,  and  issues  up  to  the  end  of  the  year  entered 
on  special  slips  or  cards  placed  in  the  stack.  On  the 
day  of  stocktaking  it  will  not  take  long  to  adjust  the 
book  of  balances  with  the  additional  entries.  If  a 
discharge  has  been  given  for  every  issue  of  paper,  either 
by  work  sheet  or  by  a requisition  from  the  various 


THE  STOCK  ROOM 


95 


departments  receiving  the  stock,  the  balances  should 
be  correct. 

In  order  that  sample  sheets  may  be  shown  to 
customers,  and  to  avoid  frequent  requisitions  for  single 
sheets  of  paper,  a few  sheets  of  all  stock  papers  should 
be  issued  for  a sample  portfolio,  and  these  folded  to  a 
convenient  size,  each  sheet  marked  with  stock  number  or 
description  to  prevent  confusion.  Reference  to  stock 
lists  will  furnish  price,  quantity  in  stock,  and  other 
necessary  particulars. 

A separate  account  should  be  kept  of  off-cuts,  which 
accumulate  rapidly.  Some  can  be  cut  to  useful  sizes,  and 
it  is  frequently  more  economical  to  trim  them  at  once 
to  the  nearest  regular  size,  to  parcel  them  in  reams,  and 
to  mark  the  contents  on  the  wrapper.  A corresponding 
entry  should  be  made  in  the  oddment  book  and  issues 
duly  noted.  All  jobs  worked  on  off-cuts  should  be 
charged  as  though  the  ordinary  stock  for  such  jobs  had 
been  used,  and  the  charge  sheet  and  invoice  should 
show  that  oddments  have  been  issued,  or  it  may  be 
difficult  to  explain  change  of  paper  or  price  when 
repeat  orders  are  executed. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


PAPER  TESTING1 

A FULL  scheme  for  the  analysis  and  testing  of  papers 
will  include  the  following : Checking  the  weight  of 
the  ream  and  sheet ; the  thickness  of  the  ream  and 
sheet ; examination  of  the  physical  and  chemical 
constituents  — fibre,  sizing,  loading,  and  colouring 
matter  ; testing  the  tensile  strength  and  elasticity, 
the  resistance  to  folding  or  crumpling,  and  micro- 
scopical examination  of  the  fibres.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  carry  out  all  these  tests  on  every  paper,  but  it  is 
well  to  be  prepared,  if  required,  to  compare  two 
samples,  using  appropriate  tests. 

Weight.  — The  weight  of  the  ream  is  checked  on 
the  scales,  and  variation  should  not  exceed  4 to  8 per 
cent,  above  or  below  the  nominal  weight.  (See  various 
kinds  of  papers  under  “Variations  in  Weight,”  on 
page  136.)  A sheet  of  paper  is  weighed  on  a balance 
which  gives  a direct  reading  for  a ream  of  480,  500, 
or  5 1 6 sheets.  The  demy  scale  is  a very  useful  little 
balance.  A metal  plate  is  supplied  with  the  scale,  a 
piece  of  paper  is  cut  exactly  to  the  size  of  the  plate 

1 It  is  more  convenient  to  use  the  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures,  as  small  quantities  and  dimensions  are  dealt  with,  and 
the  decimal  method  is  easier  to  use.  Metric  equivalents  are  : — 

1 millimetre  (mm.)  =*039  in.  1 in.  =254  mm. 

1 gramme  (grm.)  =*035  oz.  1 oz.  =2835  grm. 

1 cubic  centimetre  (c.c.)  = 'c>35  fl.  oz.  1 fl.  oz.  =2840  c.c. 

96 


PAPER  TESTING 


97 


with  a sharp  knife.  The  piece  is  placed  on  the  end  of 
a hook,  and  the  scale,  marked  for  reams  of  480,  500, 
and  5 1 6 sheets,  gives  the  weight  of  a ream  of  demy  of 
the  substance  of  the  pattern,  and  by  reference  to 
tables  the  equivalent 
weight  in  any  other 
size  can  be  found. 

Size. — The  size 
of  the  paper  is 
checked,  and  the 
papermaker  guaran- 
tees to  be  within  one- 
half  per  cent,  of  the 
measurement  ordered. 

The  paper  is  tested 
at  the  same  time  for 
squareness. 

Thickness  of 

Sheet. For  testing  Fig.  14.— Paper  Scale. 

the  thickness  of  the 

sheet  a micrometer  is  used.  The  screw  micrometer 
is  not  so  exact  on  a yielding  material  like  paper  as 
is  the  spring  micrometer,  which  gives  the  reading  on  a 
dial  in  thousandths  of  an  inch.  Machines  are  obtain- 
able in  pocket  or  stand  form,  giving  measurements  as 
close  asVoW  of  an  inch.  The  micrometer  serves  to  check 
the  thickness  of  supplies  of  paper  or  cards,  and  to 
indicate  the  bulk  of  a volume  consisting  of  a certain 
number  of  pages  or  leaves,  enabling  covers  for  books 
to  be  prepared  before  the  printing  is  completed. 

Tensile  Strength  and  Elasticity. — These  tests 
may  be  carried  out  on  various  machines.  The  method 
adopted  is  to  cut  strips  of  a standard  width,  clamp  in 
the  machine  clips  which  are  a definite  distance  apart, 
and  to  place  the  strip  to  be  tested  under  tension  by 

7 


98 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


turning  the  handle  of  the  machine,  until  breakage  of 
the  paper  takes  place.  The  machine  registers  the 
strain  put  upon  the  strip,  and  also  the  elongation  which 
the  strip  sustained  before  fracture.  The  Marshall 
machine  takes  strips  of  various  lengths  and  widths, 
and  registers  the  tension  on  a hydraulic  pressure  gauge, 
the  stretch  being  measured  exactly  and  calculated  on 
the  length  of  the  strip  used.  Leunig’s  testing  machine 


Fig.  15. — Marshall’s  Paper-Testing  Machine. 

A,  Cylinder  in  which  compression  of  liquid  is  produced  by  turning  wheel  B. 

C,  Registering  dial.  D,  Clips  for  securing  slips. 

E,  Clips  for  registering  stretch.  F,  Cutting  knife. 

G,  Cutting  gauge. 

registers  breaking  strain  and  stretch  on  two  scales. 
The  strip,  f-  inch  wide,  is  clamped  between  twoclips 
7 inches  apart,  and,  by  turning  a handle,  the  strip 
under  tension  raises  a weight  at  the  end  of  a lever. 
The  strain  exerted  by  the  weight  is  indicated  on  a 
scale  marked  in  quarter-pound  divisions.  The  stretch 
is  registered  at  the  same  time  by  a pointer  actuated 
by  a separate  rack.  The  stretch  scale  and  pointer  are 


PAPER  TESTING 


99 


kept  in  unison  with  the  strength  lever,  and  the  elonga- 
tion at  the  time  of  fracture  is  registered.  This 
machine,  although  expensive,  is  acknowledged  to  be 
the  best  for  high-class  papers  where  the  narrow  strip 


can  be  used.  The  Carrington  machine  for  coarse 
papers  takes  a strip  2 inches  wide  and  7 inches  be- 
tween the  clips,  the  strain  is  exerted  by  a weighted 
lever,  and  the  reading  is  in  pounds. 


IOO 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Bursting  Strain. — For  quick  comparative  tests 
there  are  a number  of  machines  to  choose  from.  The 
list  comprises  the  Mullen,  Southworth,  Woolley, 
Ashcroft,  Eddy,  and  Rehse  machines.  Testing  on 
the  Mullen  machine  is  by  hydraulic  pressure  which  is 
communicated  through  the  medium  of  glycerine  to  a 
rubber  diaphragm.  The  paper  is  clamped  over  the 
diaphragm ; the  handle  of  the  machine  is  turned,  pressure 
being  exerted  until  the  paper  bursts  ; the  reading  is 
given  on  the  gauge  in  pounds  per  square  inch.  The 
Southworth  gives  a similar  indication,  but  the  fluid  is 
oil,  and  a steel  plunger  punctures  the  paper.  The 
Woolley  machine  is  actuated  by  a spring  and  gives  a 
comparative  figure.  The  Ashcroft  is  a very  compact 
machine,  a very  small  plunger  piercing  the  paper,  the 
dial  reading  indicating  the  bursting  strain  in  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Two  machines  of  this  pattern  are 
made,  one  for  thin  papers,  and  the  other  for  papers  of 
ordinary  and  thick  substances.  The  Eddy  machines 
are  screw  machines,  also  made  for  thick  and  thin 
papers,  and  the  result  is  given  in  similar  terms  to  other 
machines.  The  Rehse  machine  is  a cylindrical  machine; 
pressure  is  exerted  by  a spring,  and  the  pressure  in 
pounds  is  registered  on  one  scale,  and  from  figures 
given  on  another  scale  the  stretch  can  be  calculated. 

These  machines  are  exceedingly  useful  for  rapid 
comparisons  of  papers,  the  tests  being  made  at  the 
same  time.  Slight  variations  in  results  can  be  obtained 
by  turning  the  handles  of  the  machines  at  varying 
speeds,  but  if  a uniform  rate  is  maintained,  scarcely  any 
other  precaution  is  necessary  in  their  use. 

Opacity.— -While  it  is  possible  to  obtain  apparatus 
for  exact  determination  of  the  degree  of  opacity  in 
paper,  comparison  can  readily  be  made  in  a simple 
manner.  A printed  page  is  covered  by  pieces  of  the 


PAPER  TESTING 


101 


papers  to  be  compared  brought  edge  to  edge  over 
the  printed  matter,  and  the  comparative  degree  of  opa- 
city observed  by  the  ease,  or  otherwise,  with  which  the 
lettering  can  be  seen  through  the  papers. 

Surface  or  Finish. — The  degree  of  polish  which  is 
given  to  the  paper  may  be  compared  by  feeling  with 
the  hand,  and  also  by  looking  along  the  sheet.  The 
comparisons  can  be  brought  to  a numerical  basis,  but 
apparatus  which  would  seldom  be  used  is  required  for 
that  purpose. 

Resistance  to  Wear. — -An  ingenious  machine  is 
made  for  testing  the  resistance  which  paper  offers  to 
wear  as  exemplified  by  repeated  folding.  A narrow 
strip  is  clamped  at  each  end,  kept  under  constant  tension 
by  springs,  and  folded  backwards  and  forwards  until 
breakage  occurs.  Some  idea  of  the  comparison  can 
be  seen  by  taking  the  following  results 


Folding  Machine  Tests 


Equivalent 
Weight  in 
Demy. 

J Number  of  Folds  before  Breaking. 

Description  of  Paper. 

Strong 

Direction. 

Weak 

Direction. 

Mean  of  Two 
Directions. 

Japanese  vellum  - 

28 

15,840 

6,174 

1 1,007 

Manilla 

80 

SJ83 

5,448 

5,6l6 

Loan — hand-made 

37 

2,581 

1,416 

1,998 

Ledger — mould-made  - - 

39 

i ,344 

1,023 

LI83 

,,  rftachine-made 

39 

1,243 

1,036 

1,123 

846 

1,183 

Bank— hand-made 

12 

941 

Typewriting — machine-made, 
all -rag 

9 

763 

413 

588 

Blue-laid — machine-made,  air- 
dried 

Blue-laid — machine-made 

29 

510 

394 

452 

28 

94 

86 

90 

Printing  paper 

17 

15 

9 i 

12  1 

The  tests  by  the  folding  machine,  being  conducted 
on  a very  narrow  strip,  are  only  moderately  reliable. 


102 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


To  compare  papers  a more  primitive  method  may  be 
employed.  It  has  the  virtue  of  simplicity,  and  yet  it 
gives  a fair  index  to  the  amount  of  wear  which  the 
paper  will  withstand.  Take  a piece  of  the  paper  to  be 
tested,  about  6 inches  square,  roll  it  into  a ball,  then 
spread  it  out  flat  ; repeat  the  performance,  and  notice 
how  many  such  treatments  the  paper  stands  before 
perforation  takes  place.  Papers  which  are  very  resistant, 
such  as  all-rag  papers  and  air-dried  browns,  will  assume 
a cloth-like  appearance  as  they  become  softer,  and  it 
will  be  a long  time  before  perforation  takes  place. 

Sizing1. — To  test  papers  for  efficiency  of  sizing  write 
rather  heavily  upon  the  surface  with  ordinary  pen  and 
ink.  Red  ink  is  usually  more  penetrative  than  black, 
so  it  is  better  to  use  a good  black  ink  as  a standard 
test.  As  some  papers,  such  as  account  book  papers, 
have  to  stand  erasure,  they  should  be  tested  for  ink 
bearing  after  abrasion  of  the  surface. 

To  test  for  gelatine  sizing  cut  up  a small  quantity 
of  paper  and  boil  for  a few  minutes  in  a beaker 
containing  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  paper.  Pour 
off  into  a test  tube,  cool,  add  a few  drops  of  a 2 per 
cent,  solution  of  tannic  acid.  A flocculent  precipitate 
indicates  that  the  paper  has  been  sized  with  gelatine. 
Heat  the  liquid,  and  the  precipitate  will  coagulate  and 
cling  to  the  sides  of  the  test  tube.  A comparative  test 
is  made  by  taking  an  equal  quantity  of  each  kind  of 
paper,  boiling  in  similar  quantities  of  water  for  the 
same  period,  and  adding  the  same  amount  of  tannic 
acid  solution,  and  comparing  the  results. 

Resin  sizing  is  determined  in  a different  manner. 
A comparatively  large  quantity  of  paper  is  extracted 
in  a small  quantity  of  liquid.  Take  a strip  of  paper, 
about  8 inches  by  i inch,  pleat  it  repeatedly  until  it 
can  be  placed  in  a test  tube,  and  cover  it  with  rectified 


PAPER  TESTING 


103 


spirit.  Place  the  test  tube  in  a beaker  containing 
water,  and  heat  slowly.  The  spirit  will  boil  before 
the  water  reaches  boiling  point,  and  in  a short  time  the 
resin  will  be  dissolved.  As  soon  as  the  solution  is 
cool,  pour  it  into  a test  tube  half  full  of  distilled  water, 
and  the  resin  will  appear  as  a ring,  whitish  in  colour, 
at  the  junction  of  the  two  liquids.  If  the  test  tube 
is  shaken  up  the  opalescent  appearance  of  the  liquid 
indicates  the  presence  of  resin. 

Starch. — A very  weak  solution  of  iodine  in  potassium 
iodide  is  dropped  on  the  paper  with  a glass  rod,  or  a 
strip  of  the  paper  is  dipped  into  the  solution.  If  a 
very  small  quantity  of  starch  is  present  in  the  paper 
a blue  reaction  will  take  place,  and  the  larger  the 
amount,  the  darker  the  coloration.  Therefore  in  order 
to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  quantity  of  starch  used, 
a very  pale  solution  must  be  used,  or  the  colour  may 
be  too  dark  to  enable  one  to  make  comparisons.  An 
aqueous  extract  of  the  paper  may  be  treated  with  the 
iodine  solution,  and  if  a comparative  test  is  to  be  made, 
it  is  necessary  to  work  on  each  paper  with  identical 
quantities  of  water  for  boiling,  and  iodine  solution  for 
testing.  A faint  colour  must  not  be  taken  as  evidence 
of  added  starch,  as  in  rag  pulp  it  is  very  difficult  to 
remove  starch  from  the  raw  materials. 

Colouring  Matters — The  tests  for  colours  should 
be  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  whether  they  are 
reasonably  fast  to  light  and  when  wetted.  The  first 
can  be  tested  by  exposing  the  paper  to  a steady  light 
— not  sunlight — for  a period  according  to  the  time  of 
year.  A photographic  printing  frame  with  a black 
disc  on  plain  glass  is  a convenient  method  of  testing, 
and  if,  after  forty-eight  hours  in  summer,  and  a pro- 
portionately longer  period  at  other  times,  the  difference 
between  the  exposed  and  protected  areas  is  marked, 


104 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


the  paper  must  not  be  used  where  a permanent  colour 
is  required.  Some  tints  will  bleach  completely  with 
the  treatment,  and  should  be  avoided  as  stock  lines. 
To  test  water-fastness  a piece  of  paper  is  left  in 
warm  water,  or  placed  in  cold  water  and  heated  slowly. 
If  the  colour  is  soluble  it  will  very  soon  tint  the 
water. 

Coloured  papers  for  pasting  to  book  covers  or 
boxes  should  be  tested  by  pasting  down  to  the  boards 
intended  for  use.  Some  boards  have  a curious  effect 
on  certain  tinted  papers,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
chemicals  in  the  finished  boards,  and  acidity  or 
alkalinity  may  render  change  of  covering  paper 
necessary. 

Absorbent  Papers.— Blotting  paper  may  be  tested 
by  the  mounting  test.  To  carry  this  out,  cut  strips 
from  each  direction  of  the  paper — length  and  width — 
6 inches  long  by  i inch  in  width.  Make  a pencil 
mark  half  an  inch  from  the  end,  and  immerse  the  strip 
as  far  as  the  pencil  mark  in  water  or  ink.  The  fluid 
immediately  commences  to  mount  the  strip,  and  the 
speed  at  which  this  takes  place  is  an  indication  of  the 
relative  initial  absorbency  of  papers  tested  by  this 
method.  In  practice,  blotting  paper  must  absorb  im- 
mediately, as  the  pressure  usually  applied  will,  if  the 
paper  is  not  sufficiently  absorbent,  spread  the  ink. 
For  this  reason  the  rising  of  the  fluid  should  be  marked 
and  checked  in  the  first  ten  to  sixty  seconds,  and  when 
several  tests  in  each  direction  have  been  made,  the 
figures  tabulated  and  the  mean  rate  calculated.  It 
is  convenient  to  measure  in  millimetres  rather  than  in 
fractions  of  an  inch.  Ink  makes  the  better  testing 
fluid,  as  the  way  in  which  the  blotting  paper  carries  up 
the  colouring  matter  can  be  seen  at  once,  and  a paper 
which  is  superior  in  this  respect  will  usually  be  the 


PAPER  TESTING 


105 


better  paper.  The  zone  test  is  an  elaboration  of  the 
ink  test.  A small  quantity  (1  c.c.  or  *5  c.c.)  is  allowed 
to  fall  a drop  at  a time  upon  the  blotting  paper,  and 
when  the  blot  is  dry,  the  area  of  the  outer  non- 
absorbent zone,  its  proportion  to  the  inner  absorbent 
zone,  and  its  regularity  will  serve  as  an  index  to  the 
behaviour  of  the  paper  in  use.  Other  factors  in  the 
choice  of  blottings  are  the  resistance  to  wear,  absence 
of  fluff,  and  the  resistance  to  surface  dirt.  A very  rough 
blotting  paper  may  not  be  entirely  satisfactory  in  those 
respects,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a very  smooth  paper 
may  be  produced  at  the  expense  of  absorbency. 

Copying  papers  are  tested  in  the  copying  press 
with  a document  written  with  copyable  ink,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  paper  judged  either  by  comparison 
with  a standard  sample,  or  merely  by  the  clearness  of 
the  resulting  copy. 

Duplicating  papers  may  be  tested  by  drawing  a 
fine  pen  charged  with  writing  ink  across  the  surface, 
and  immediately  rubbing  the  ink  to  see  if  it  smears. 
Half-sized  duplicating  papers  have  the  same  method 
applied,  but  should  be  allowed  five  to  ten  seconds  after 
writing.  These  methods  are  superseded  by  the  use  of 
the  duplicating  machine,  if  available. 

Mineral  Matter— Loading. — A weighed  quantity 
of  paper — say  1 gm. — is  torn  into  small  fragments, 
placed  in  a porcelain  crucible,  previously  weighed,  and 
subjected  to  the  intense  heat  of  a Bunsen  burner  until 
the  paper  is  consumed  and  the  residue  reduced  to  a 
white  ash,  or  in  any  case  until  all  carbonaceous  matter 
is  burnt  off.  See  that  any  black  deposit  on  the  crucible 
is  burnt  away.  Cool  the  crucible,  weigh  it  with  its 
contents,  deduct  the  weight  of  the  crucible,  and  the 
weight,  multiplied  by  100,  will  give  the  percentage  of 
mineral  matter  present  in  the  paper. 


io6 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Weight  of  crucible  - - 6'2  5 gm. 

Weight  of  paper  - - - roo  „ 

Weight  of  crucible  and  ash  - 6*365  „ 

Deduct  weight  of  crucible  6*25  „ 

Weight  of  ash  - - *115x100=11*5  percent. 

The  ash,  if  not  required  for  subsequent  examination, 
can  be  thrown  away,  the  crucible  wiped  out  and  weighed 
again  to  check  the  net  weight  of  ash.  It  is  usual  to 
calculate  the  whole  of  the  ash  as  added  mineral  water, 
although  all  fibrous  materials  have  ash  of  some  weight, 
e.g.,  cotton  ‘12  per  cent.,  esparto  3!  to  5 per  cent.  A 
delicate  balance  with  weights  from  50  gm.  to  1 mgm. 
is  advised  for  exact  results. 

Fibre  Composition. — It  is  necessary  to  exclude 
mechanical  wood  from  most  papers,  and  its  detection 
is  rendered  easy  by  the  use  of  certain  solutions.  A 
solution  is  made  up  of  1 gm.  of  phloroglucine  in 
50  c.c.  of  rectified  spirit  with  25  c.c.  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid  added.  If  a drop  of  this  solution 
is  placed  on  paper  in  which  mechanical  wood  is  present 
an  intensely  red  coloration  will  follow.  The  amount  of 
mechanical  wood  may  be  estimated  by  the  depth  of 
colour,  but  this  is  very  difficult,  as  may  be  proved  by 
comparing  the  results  obtained  on  papers  containing 
40  and  70  per  cent,  of  mechanical  wood  respectively. 
Some  aniline  colours  are  altered  in  colour  by  the 
acid  of  the  solution,  although  the  colour  is  not 
the  same  as  that  given  by  mechanical  wood,  and  it 
appears  and  fades  in  a different  manner.  A solution 
of  2 per  cent,  of  aniline  sulphate  (1  gm.  in  50  c.c.  of 
water)  will  give  a yellow  coloration  in  the  presence  of 
mechanical  wood.  As  wood  fibres,  jute,  and  some  other 
fibres  which  have  not  been  thoroughly  cleaned,  give 
colour  reactions  as  though  mechanical  wood  were 


PAPER  TESTING 


107 


present,  the  microscope  should  be  used  for  con- 
firmation. 

Papers  containing  straw  or  esparto  fibre  are  coloured 
pink,  pale  or  deep  according  to  the  quantity  of  these 
fibres  present,  when  heated  in  a weak  solution  of 
aniline  sulphate.  Strips  of  paper  treated  at  the  same 
time  will  afford  comparative  tests.  Bamboo  paper 
gives  a pink  reaction  in  the  heated  aniline  sulphate 
solution,  but  some  grasses,  such  as  delta  grass,  are  not 
affected. 

Microscopical  Examination. — Colour  reactions  re- 
veal the  presence  of  mechanical  wood,  straw,  and  esparto 
in  papers,  but  the  reagents  used  do  not  reveal  the 
presence  of  chemical  wood  or  rag  fibres,  nor  do  they 
distinguish  between  cotton  and  linen  fibres.  In  order 
to  obtain  more  exact  conclusions  the  microscope  is 
employed.  Although  a powerful  microscope  is  a 
valuable  possession,  a moderate  instrument  is  pre- 
ferable ; a microscope  equal  to  the  “ London,”  with  a 
combination  of  eye-pieces  and  objectives  to  give 
magnifications  of  59  to  270  diameters,  will  be  found 
excellent  for  the  examination  of  fibres.  A supply  of 
slips,  3 inches  by  1 inch,  and  half  an  ounce  of  cover 
glasses  § inch  diameter  will  be  required. 

The  fibres  in  most  cases  are  securely  fastened  with 
the  sizing  materials,  and  to  remove  these  the  paper 
is  boiled  in  a weak  solution  of  caustic  soda.  After 
boiling,  the  paper  is  washed,  and,  with  teasing  needles, 
little  pieces  of  paper  picked  out  and  placed  on  a glass 
slip.  Or  the  paper  is  placed  in  a test  tube  with  a little 
water,  the  thumb  placed  over  the  mouth  of  the  tube, 
and  by  shaking  violently  the  paper  is  soon  reduced 
to  pulp.  A very  small  portion  of  pulp  is  placed 
on  the  slide,  and  superfluous  moisture  carefully  re- 
moved with  filter  paper.  A stain  makes  the  markings 


io8 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


on  the  fibres  more  easily  seen,  and  if  a suitable  stain 
is  employed,  some  differentiation  in  colouring  the 
various  fibres  takes  place. 

A good  standard  solution  is  iodine  in  potassium 
iodide,  with  an  accessory  acid  solution  : — 


Iodine  Solution. 


Accessory  Solution. 


Iodine  - - ri5  gm. 

Potassium  iodide  2’o  ,, 

Water  - - 20  c.c. 


Glycerine  - • 10  c.c. 

Water  - - - 5 „ 

Sulphuric  - - 15  „ 


A drop  of  the  iodine  solution  is  placed  on  the  fibre 
on  the  slide.  After  a minute  or  so  it  is  blotted  off,  and 
a drop  of  the  accessory  solution  is  added.  The  fibres 
are  separated  with  teasing  needles  (needles  mounted  in 
wooden  handles)  until  well  distributed  on  the  slide. 
A cover  glass  is  cleaned  by  rubbing  with  a piece  of 
wash  leather,  and  dropped  on  the  slide.  The  excess 
of  solution  is  carefully  absorbed  with  the  filter  paper, 
and  the  slide  is  ready  for  examination.  A description 
of  each  of  the  principal  fibres  is  given,  with  the  normal 
dimensions  of  the  unbeaten  fibres  and  the  coloration 
given  by  the  solutions  specified.  For  general  examina- 
tion the  lower  powers  of  the  microscope  will  be  found 
most  useful,  the  higher  magnifications  being  employed 
for  studying  the  markings  and  other  characteristics  of 
the  fibres.  The  dimensions  given  of  cotton,  linen,  and 
hemp  fibres  will  not  be  met  with  in  papers  made  from 
those  materials,  as  in  beating  the  lengths  are  shortened, 
and  frequently  the  fibres  are  split  longitudinally. 
Tissues,  copyings,  and  Bible  papers  show  the  greatest 
reduction  of  the  fibres. 

Cotton. — Fibre  30  to  40  mm.x‘02  mm.  Stained 
violet-red  to  brown.  The  fibres  are  long  flattened 

tubes  with  large  channel  and  numerous  twists,  blunt 
ends,  and  some  fibres  have  crosfs  markings.  For  a 
blotting  the  fibres  are  cut  into  short  lengths,  and  the 


PAPERMAKING  FIBRES 

Magnified  50  diameters 


Fig.  17. — Rag  Fibres  Unbeaten. 
A,  Linen.  B,  Cotton. 


Fig.  18. — Rag  Fibres  Beaten. 


Fig.  20. — Manilla. 


Fig.  21. — Jute. 


{Face  p.  109. 


Fig.  19. — Hemp. 


PAPER  TESTING 


IO9 


characteristics  can  be  easily  observed.  The  fibres  are 
reduced  in  diameter  as  well  as  in  length  by  prolonged 
beating  for  strong  papers,  the  ends  are  frayed,  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  identify  the  cotton  in  a finely-beaten  rag 
mixture  (Figs.  17  and  18). 

Linen. — Fibre  30  to  40  mm.  x *02  5 mm.  Stained 
violet-red  to  brown.  Linen  is  the  fibre  from  the  stem 
of  the  flax.  The  fibres  have  thicker  walls  than  cotton, 
from  which  it  is  easily  distinguished  in  its  unbeaten 
state,  being  a smoother,  rounder  fibre,  with  marks  like 
joints  at  intervals,  small  cross  markings,  and  pointed 
ends.  When  beaten  finely  it  is  not  possible  to 
distinguish  linen  from  cotton  (Figs.  1 7 and  1 8). 

Hemp. — Fibre  20  mm.  X '02  mm.  Stained,  un- 
bleached fibre,  yellow  to  brown  ; bleached,  brown-red  to 
wine-red.  In  general  appearance  the  fibre  is  similar  to 
linen,  with  slightly  thinner  walls,  more  markings,  and 
at  the  places  where  joint  markings  occur  are  also  little 
hairs.  The  ends  of  the  fibres  are  rounded  or  flattened. 
The  fibre  in  paper  is  usually  beaten  so  finely  as  not  to 
be  recognised  (Fig.  19). 

Manilla  Hemp. — Fibre  7 mm.  x *02  mm.  Stained 
yellow  to  blue,  according  to  amount  of  bleaching  and 
cleaning  of  the  raw  material.  The  fibres  are  like  hemp 
fibres,  but  the  canal  is  much  larger,  and  accompanying 
the  fibres  are  many  oblong  transparent  cells,  sometimes 
occurring  like  blocks  of  bricks  (Fig.  20). 

Jute  . — Fibre  2*5  mm.  x *022  mm.  Stained,  un- 
bleached, yellow  ; bleached,  brown.  Jute  fibres  resemble 
linen  and  hemp,  but  the  central  canal  is  irregular  in 
width,  widening  in  places  and  narrowing  again.  The 
ends  of  the  fibres  are  pointed  and  somewhat  flattened 
(Fig.  21). 

Straw. — Fibre  1*5  mm.  x *015  mm.  Stained 
greyish  to  blue.  Similar  to  esparto,  but  the  fibres  are 
more  flexible,  and  become  kinked  when  made  into 


I IO 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


paper.  Serrated  cells  and  transparent  oval  cells  are 
present  (Fig.  22). 

Esparto. — Fibre  1*5  mm.  x '012  mm.  Stained 
greyish-blue  to  colourless.  The  fibres  are  very  fine  and 
short  with  pointed  ends.  Characteristics  of  esparto  are 
the  comma-shaped  hairs  and  the  serrated  cells  (Fig.  23). 

Bamboo. — Fibre  4 mm.  X *o  1 5 mm.  Stained  yellow 
to  pale  brownish-green.  Resembling  esparto,  with 
cylindrical  fibres  with  pointed  ends,  and  usually  a large 
number  of  transparent  oval  cells  are  found  in  paper 
made  from  bamboo  (Fig.  24). 

Chemical  Wood. — The  fibres  vary  considerably  in 
length  and  thickness.  Stained  blue  to  colourless. 
Consisting  of  flat  ribbon-like  fibres,  broad  flat  cells 
pitted  and  perforated,  others  similar  to  sections  of  a 
plant  stalk,  they  are  on  the  whole  unlike  any  other 
fibres.  A few  fibres  resemble  linen  fibres,  but  com- 
parison will  reveal  differences.  The  differentiation 
between  pine,  spruce,  poplar,  birch  is  unnecessary  for 
ordinary  paper  testing  (Fig.  25). 

Mechanical  Wood. — Stained  yellow.  This  pulp 
is  unmistakable,  owing  to  the  broken  pieces  of  various 
sizes  and  shapes,  fragments  of  fibres  torn  away  from  the 
original  wood,  held  together  by  cells,  and  showing  pits 
and  pores.  Most  newspapers  are  made  of  a mixture 
of  chemical  and  mechanical  wood,  and  microscopic  ex- 
amination of  these  mixtures  furnishes  an  easy  way  of 
becoming  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  the  different 
wood  pulps  (Fig.  26). 

To  arrive  at  a correct  result,  as  regards  the  pro- 
portion of  fibres  in  a mixture,  is  not  at  all  easy.  By 
taking  a series  of  fields  on  one  slide,  counting  and 
tabulating  the  contents  under  the  headings  of  the 
different  fibres,  and  averaging  the  fields,  a fair  ap- 
proximation can  be  obtained.  For  comparison  of  two 
or  more  papers  this  will  usually  suffice,  but  consider- 


PAPERMAKING  FIBRES 

Magnified  50  diameters 


Vo  i k 

v 9 

. 

O % 

Y 

\k  ; v| 

X XkX 

; \%  ! - 

\ k 

kk  k-S 

. , ' x\\\  / 

1 

"kx  N\| 

‘ 

V %0- 

, 

A' 

B A 

d 

A 

•A  " J " 

kk  • ■ 

B> 

A * / 

Fig.  25. — Chemical  Wood. 
A,  Pine.  B,  Poplar. 


Fig.  26.  — Mechanical  Wood. 


{Face  p.  no. 


PAPER  TESTING 


1 1 1 


able  experience  is  required  before  one  is  able  to 
formulate  the  furnish  of  a paper  consisting  of  two  or 
more  kinds  of  fibre,  as  the  different  fibres  have  varying 
dimensions  and  weights. 

Printing-  Qualities. — The  test  for  comparison  with 
a standard  paper  is  carried  out  by  printing  on  the 
papers  under  examination  at  the  same  time,  under  the 
same  conditions,  and  judging  the  brilliance,  solidity  of 
colour,  absorption  of  ink,  and  noting  how  the  colours 
dry.  The  test  for  the  efficiency  of  sizing  will  have 
shown  whether  the  paper  is  likely  to  be  too  porous  or 
too  hard,  but  the  actual  test  for  printing  is  advisable  when 
taking  a large  quantity  of  a special  making  into  stock. 

The  trouble  of  registering  colour  work  has  been 
dealt  with  at  length  elsewhere.  If  a paper  has  newly 
arrived  from  the  mill,  it  is  scarcely  reasonable  to 
condemn  it  on  a trial  for  register  before  a little  time 
has  elapsed  for  maturing.  It  is  well  to  examine  the 
bulk  to  discover  if  all  the  supply  is  cut  with  the  same 
machine  direction. 

Various  Faults. — Paper  which  has  not  been 
properly  retreed — that  is,  the  extraction  of  faulty  sheets 
has  not  been  done  closely — will  be  found  unsuitable 
for  the  highest  class  of  work.  The  faults  in  the  sheets 
may  comprise  spots,  specks,  creases,  superficial  mark- 
ings and  torn  paper.  The  spots  and  specks  may  be 
caused  by  various  foreign  substances — sand,  dirt,  knots 
of  fibre,  pieces  of  rubber,  sealing-wax,  little  lumps  of 
mineral  matter  or  froth.  The  foreign  matter  varies 
with  different  papers,  and  will  be  more  apparent  in 
super-calendered  papers  than  in  those  which  are  not 
highly  rolled,  as  the  rolling  brings  faults  into  greater 
prominence.  Creases  formed  before  or  during  calender- 
ing render  sheets  unfit  for  use.  Superficial  markings 
may  occur  at  the  drying  cylinders  or  from  marks  on 
the  other  rolls,  resulting  in  rust  marks,  streaks,  and 


I 12 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


sometimes  in  bleaching  coloured  papers  in  lines.  Torn 
paper  shows  hurried  sorting,  as  it  is  not  difficult  to  see 
such  a fault  when  turning  over  the  sheets.  In  various 
coated  papers  sheets  with  uneven  coating  or  surface 
markings  should  not  be  included  as  “ good  ” paper. 
A paper  which  is  even  in  texture  cannot  be  considered 
matched  by  a supply  which  is  “ wild  ” or  cloudy  in  the 
look-through.  Although  wildness  is  sometimes  accom- 
panied by  strength  in  paper,  this  is  not  always  so,  and 
it  is  desirable  that  printing  papers  should  not  be  wild. 

To  analyse  papers  in  order  to  discover  chemical 
residues  and  to  identify  them  requires  some  very 
delicate  tests,  and  unless  one  has  had  an  extensive 
chemical  training,  mistaken  conclusions  may  result. 


The  various  apparatus  and  chemicals  necessary  for 
paper  testing  as  detailed  in  this  chapter  (other  than 
machines,  chemical  balance  and  microscope)  are  detailed 
below. 


1 glass  measure,  50  c.c.  capa- 

city. 

2 beakers,  225  c.c. 

6 beakers,  60  c.c. 

1 dozen  test  tubes,  5 in.  x § in. 
1 test-tube  stand  to  take  6 
tubes. 

6 porcelain  crucibles  without 
covers,  No.  1. 

1 tripod  stand,  7 in.  x 5 in. 

1 piece  gauze  asbestos  covered. 
1 pipeclay  triangle. 

1 Bunsen  burner  ^ or  one  spirit 

3 ft. rubbertubing/lamp, 70C.C. 


2 dozen  glass  slips,  3 in.  x 
1 in. 

J oz.  cover  glasses,  No.  3,  f 
in.  diameter. 

2 teasing  needles. 

1 oz.  tannic  acid. 

1 oz.  aniline  sulphate. 

1 oz.  caustic  soda. 

5 oz.  rectified  spirit. 

25  c.c.  iodine  in  potass,  iodide 
sol. 

25  c.c.  sulphuric  acid  and  gly- 
cerine sol. 

25  c.c.  phloroglucine  solution. 


Messrs  Townson  & Mercer  Ltd.,  of  34  Camomile 
Street,  London,  E.C.,  undertake  to  supply  the  whole  of 
the  articles  for  1 7s.  6d.  if  the  Bunsen  burner  is  desired, 
and  for  16s,  if  a spirit  lamp  is  to  be  used. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS 

Account  Book  Papers. — Strong,  even,  well-made  papers, 
hard  tub-sized,  with  good  writing  surface,  usually  azure 
laid.  The  finish  of  both  sides  of  the  paper  should  be 
as  nearly  as  possible  equal,  and  opacity  is  essential. 
Hand-made  and  the  best  machine-made  papers  are  all- 
rag, tub-sized,  air-dried.  Cheap  varieties  of  account 
book  papers  can  be  obtained  at  2-Jd.  per  lb.,  but  these 
are  engine-sized,  and  the  strength  is  not  sufficient  to 
bear  the  handling  to  which  account  books  generally  are 
subjected. 

Angle  Papers. — Envelope  papers,  made  in  the  usual  way, 
and,  after  slitting,  cut  at  an  angle  in  order  to  economise 
in  cutting  the  envelope  blanks.  The  angle  may  be 
varied  to  suit  customers’  requirements. 

Anti-Acid  Manillas.— See  Cable  and  Insulating  Papers. 

Backing  Papers. — For  stereotyping  purposes.  Brown 
papers  which  paste  down  easily  and  strengthen  the 
flong. 

Bag  Papers. — Brown  papers  of  medium  substance  for  bags, 
usually  royal  in  size. 

Banks. — Thin  tough  papers,  glazed  or  unglazed,  for  use 
where  strong  papers  of  little  weight  are  required.  Banks 
run  from  hand-made,  tub-sized,  air-dried,  to  machine- 
made,  engine-sized,  machine-finish,  and  the  prices  from 
2s.  6d.  to  3d.  per  lb.  The  usual  sizes  and  weights  are  : — 
foolscap,  7 lb. ; large  post,  1 1 lb. ; medium,  1 3 lb. 

Bank-note  Papers. — Hand-made  papers  for  which  new 
linen  cuttings  are  used ; the  notes  having  to  withstand 
considerable  handling,  the  paper  is  specially  strong  and 
tough.  Watermarks  of  special  design  are  employed ; 
the  sheets  are  made  twice  the  size  of  a bank-note,  each 
note  having  three  deckled  edges. 

8 «3 


H4 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Bible  Papers. — Thin  printing  papers  of  good  quality, 
opaque  and  strong.  Used  for  Bibles  and  other  books 
where  a large  number  of  pages  is  required  to  occupy 
a small  bulk. 

Bill  Papers. — Hand-  or  machine-made,  all-rag  papers,  tub- 
sized, air-dried.  Being  used  for  documents  such  as 
promissory  notes,  bills  of  exchange,  etc.,  the  paper  must 
be  very  durable. 

Biscuit  Caps. — Thin  white  M.G.  papers,  employed  for 
making  bags  for  confectionery  and  similar  trades,  in 
various  sizes.  The  bags  are  frequently  made  up  at 
the  mill. 

Blotting  Papers  are  made  from  the  tenderest  of  old  cotton 
rags,  and  are  free  from  loading  and  sizing.  Made  in 
white,  pink,  buff,  green,  blue,  and  Silurian,  the  usual 
size  is  demy,  and  the  weight  38  lb.  per  ream  of  480 
sheets,  at  prices  from  4d.  to  8d.  per  lb.  Other  stock 
substances  are  demy  27,  48,  60,  80,  and  100  lb. 
Blottings  for  interleaving  diaries  and  similar  works  are 
sometimes  made  of  a mixture  of  rag  and  soda  wood 
pulps,  or  even  entirely  of  wood  pulp,  in  much  lighter 
weights,  and  in  various  sizes  equivalent  to  demy  14  lb., 
at  prices  from  2^d.  per  lb.,  according  to  quality. 
Enamelled  blottings  are  made  by  pasting  enamelled 
papers  to  blottings  of  the  usual  substance. 

Bond  Papers  are  similar  in  character  to  banks,  but  are 
heavier  in  weight.  The  term  is  often  applied  to 
superior  looking  engine-sized  writings  of  medium  sub- 
stance, but  strength  is  essential  in  all  papers  included 
in  this  class. 

Bowl  Papers,  made  from  the  waste  from  flax  spinning  mills, 
unsized,  bleached  or  unbleached,  are  used  for  covering 
the  rolls  in  calendering  machines,  where  there  are 
alternate  rolls  of  compressed  paper  and  chilled  iron. 
The  paper  is  made  in  sheets,  square  and  circular,  in  the 
substance  equivalent  to  10  lb.  demy. 

Box  Boards,  in  various  qualities,  from  the  common  grey 
board  to  the  tough  glazed  board,  made  from  different 
wastes,  well  rolled.  Used  by  boxmakers,  cut  and 
creased  by  machinery,  folded  and  fastened  by  glue  or 
metal  fastenings.  Boxes  for  all  trades  are  thus  made, 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS  1 1 5 

some  being  quite  plain,  others  covered  with  coloured  or 
fancy  papers. 

Bright  Enamel  Papers. — Enamelled  papers,  coated  on 
one  side  only,  finished  with  a high  polish  produced  by 
calendering  and  brushing.  Used  for  labels  for  various 
purposes,  the  design  printed  in  several  colours  and 
bronze. 

Bristol  Boards. — Fine  boards  for  black  and  white  drawings. 
Various  boards  are  called  “Bristol,”  but  the  name 
rightly  applies  to  those  boards  made  of  fine  rag  paper 
throughout,  hot  pressing  being  the  method  employed 
for  obtaining  the  high  surface.  They  are  manufactured 
with  the  utmost  care,  free  from  all  defects.  Stock  sizes, 
foolscap,  demy,  medium,  royal,  and  imperial,  and  as 
papers  of  these  sizes  are  pasted,  and  the  finished  boards 
trimmed  all  round,  the  boards  are  slightly  smaller  than 
the  sizes  of  the  papers. 

Browns. — Brown  wrapping  papers  are  made  of  various 
materials  and  in  many  qualities  and  substances.  Rope 
browns,  air-dried,  cylinder-dried  are  three  kinds,  “ rope  ” 
being  properly  made  from  old  ropes,  but  some  papers  sold 
under  the  name  have  wood  pulps  in  their  composition. 
Browns  are  made  on  the  Fourdrinier  machine,  either 
dried  on  cylinders  as  ordinary  papers,  or  cut  up  and  hung 
to  become  air-dried.  Air-dried  browns  are  much  more 
flexible  and  more  durable  than  cylinder-dried  papers. 
Browns  are  usually  sold  by  the  cwt.,  prices  ranging  from 
8s.  6d.  to  22s.  6d.  per  cwt.  Usual  sizes  are  shown  on 
page  142.  See  also  Wrappings. 

Butter  Papers. — These  are  greaseproof  papers  used  for 
wrapping  butter  and  similar  articles.  Vegetable  parch- 
ment papers  are  used,  imitation  parchments,  and  papers 
treated  with  a solution  of  albumen  and  salt.  Butter 
papers  are  glazed  or  unglazed. 

Cable  Papers. — Also  known  as  insulating  papers,  which 
better  describes  their  purpose.  These  papers  are  made 
from  various  materials,  such  as  manilla,  jute,  and  some- 
times all  wood ; some  are  unsized,  but  others  are  hard- 
sized. Strength  is  essential,  as  they  are  cut  to  narrow 
widths,  from  one-sixth  of  an  inch  upwards,  wound  round 
the  individual  wires  which  go  to  make  up  cables.  The 


II 6 PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 

covered  wires  are  dried  and  the  whole  coated  with  some 
waterproofing  non-conductive  substance  to  ensure  com- 
plete insulation.  See  Anti-acid  Manillas. 

Caps. — Thin  brown  wrappings,  used  in  a variety  of  trades, 
fall  under  this  general  description. 

Carbolic  Paper. — Strong  packing  paper  impregnated  with 
carbolic  acid,  used  for  packing  goods  liable  to  attack 
by  insects  or  fungi.  Carbolic  acid  being  a powerful 
germicide,  and  poisonous  to  insects,  acts  as  protection. 

Carbon  Paper. — This  is  a class  of  paper  increasing  in  use. 
It  consists  of  a paper  with  a coating  of  colour,  ground 
in  an  oily  or  waxy  medium,  applied  to  one  or  both 
sides  of  the  sheet.  The  pigment,  for  the  black,  mauve 
and  blue  carbons,  is  largely  composed  of  lampblack, 
but  other  colouring  materials  are  used.  The  paper  is 
unrolled  from  the  web,  the  colour  applied  to  the  surface, 
and  brushes  rub  the  coating  into  the  paper.  Passing 
over  heated  and  cooled  cylinders  the  paper  receives  its 
finish,  and  is  reeled  and  allowed  to  mature.  Afterwards 
the  paper  is  cut  to  special  or  standard  sizes  (foolscap 
folio  and  large  post  quarto).  By  the  use  of  a very  thin 
paper  and  very  thin  carbon  papers,  as  many  as  twelve 
copies  of  a typewritten  document  may  be  obtained  at 
one  time.  To  make  this  possible  the  finest  carbons  are 
coated  on  the  thinnest  tissue  paper  procurable.  Carbon 
papers  for  special  purposes  include  two-sided,  greaseless, 
copyable  and  hektograph. 

Cards. — Pasteboards,  ivory  boards  and  pulp  boards  are  cut 
into  cards  and  put  up  in  packets  of  52  and  1,040. 
Retree  cards  have  the  wrappers  inside  out.  Sizes  of 
cards  are  given  on  page  140. 

Carpet  Felt  Papers. — Thick,  loosely-felted  papers,  having 
very  little  strength.  Made  of  waste  papers,  grey  in 
colour,  used  for  placing  under  carpets  to  prevent  marking 
by  floorboards,  to  give  a better  feel  to  the  floor  covering, 
and,  when  impregnated  with  certain  ingredients,  to 
prevent  moth  infesting  the  carpet.  Made  in  widths  of 
54  and  60  inches  and  sold  in  rolls  of  12  and  25  yards. 

Carriage  Panels. — A special  variety  of  compressed  mill- 
boards,  afterwards  thoroughly  waterproofed  and  used  for 
roofing  railway  and  other  carriages. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS  II 7 

Cartridges. — Strong  papers,  the  best  qualities  are  tub-sized, 
originally  made  for  cartridge  manufacture,  but  now  used 
for  cover  papers  and  as  cheap  drawings. 

Casings.  — Comparatively  thin  brown  papers,  used  for 
lining  cases,  crates,  etc. 

Chart  Papers. — Largely  used  by  lithographers  for  map  and 
chart  printing.  Machine-made,  the  best  qualities  are 
all-rag,  tub-sized,  with  smooth  surface.  Must  be  strong, 
pliable,  tough,  resistant  to  wear,  and  at  the  same  time 
a good  printing  surface  is  essential.  The  manufacture 
is  arranged  so  as  to  avoid  subsequent  stretch. 

Cheque  Papers. — Good  quality  of  paper,  specially  made 
for  strength,  usually  all-rag.  Special  watermarks  may 
be  employed,  or  protection  from  fraud  is  obtained  by 
special  printing.  Other  cheque  papers  contain  chemical 
compounds  which  render  alteration  or  erasure  easy  of 
detection.  The  means  adopted  for  erasure  cause 
chemical  combinations  which  alter  the  colour  of  the 
ink,  or  develop  chemical  change  which  discolours  the 
paper. 

Chromo  Papers. — Fine  coated  papers  for  colour  litho- 
graphy, having  a thick  coating  on  a good  body  paper, 
finished  dull  or  with  a good  surface.  Usual  sizes, 
medium,  royal,  double  crown,  imperial.  The  weights 
listed  are  usually  those  of  the  uncoated  paper. 

Cigarette  Papers. — -Tissues  of  finest  quality,  wove  or  laid, 
thin,  strong,  free  from  loading  and  taste,  and  must  burn 
easily.  Ropes  form  the  basis  of  the  paper,  fine  beating 
being  essential.  Some  papers  have  chemical  additions 
to  the  pulp  in  order  to  ensure  even  combustion. 

Cloth-lined  Paper. — Cotton  cloth,  equivalent  to  scrim  or 
common  muslins,  according  to  quality,  having  paper 
facing.  Cloth-centred  paper  has  thin  paper  pasted  on 
each  side,  while  cloth-backed  papers  are  of  better  quality, 
with  a fair  cloth  on  the  back.  Useful  where  much 
handling  is  required.  Cloth-lined  cards  (sometimes 
described  as  linen-lined)  are  thicker  substances  than  the 
papers.  Surface  enamelled  cloth-lined  cards  are  first 
made  as  cloth-backed  cards  and  then  enamelled  with  the 
coloured  coating  and  plate  glazed. 


1 1 8 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Coils. — Used  for  various  purposes,  such  as  telegraph,  time 
recording  machines,  cash  registers,  music  rolls  for  piano 
players,  wiping  the  die  in  relief  stamping,  and  for  print- 
ing small  forms  on  the  reel.  Papers  are  slit  from  the 
full  reel,  and  re-wound  on  centres  suitable  for  the 
machine  or  other  spindles. 

Collar  Papers. — Papers  for  making  paper  collars  and 
similar  articles ; made  of  wood  pulp  with  a woven 
cotton  or  linen  fabric  rolled  down  to  the  paper,  the 
surface  filled  with  mineral  and  the  whole  highly  rolled. 

Copying1  Papers. — Thin  glazed  or  unglazed  papers  of  the 
same  character  and  composition  as  tissues,  but  some- 
times having  a small  amount  of  mineral  matter  added  to 
ensure  perfect  copying.  These  papers  are  used  for 
taking  press  copies  of  correspondence,  the  original  being 
written  (or  typewritten)  with  copyable  ink.  The 
copying  paper  is  damped,  the  superfluous  moisture 
removed  with  a sheet  of  drying  royal  Q.v.),  an  oiled 
sheet  placed  at  the  back  of  the  copying  page  and  the 
whole  placed  in  the  copying  press  and  given  a good 
squeeze.  One  or  more  perfect  copies  of  the  correspon- 
dence can  be  obtained  by  this  method.  As  copying 
books  are  made  with  500  or  1,000  leaves,  the  reams  are 
made  up  of  500  sheets.  Rotary  copying  machines 
employ  copying  paper  in  rolls,  sometimes  perforated  at 
regular  intervals,  a damping  roller  preparing  the  paper : 
the  copy  is  taken  by  rotary  pressure.  Everdamp  copy- 
ing paper  eliminates  the  damping  roller  from  this  class 
of  machine. 

Cork  Paper. — For  packing  bottles,  coarse  wrapping  paper 
is  covered  with  adhesive,  and  on  this  powdered  cork 
is  sprinkled  making  an  elastic  packing  material.  For 
cigarette  tips  very  thin  sheets  of  cork  are  pasted  to 
tissues  and  cut  to  widths  suitable  for  the  well-known 
cork  tips. 

Corrugated  Paper.  - — The  corrugation  is  effected  by 
machine,  the  corrugated  paper  being  glued  or  pasted  to  a 
flat  web  of  similar  paper.  Commonly  the  thinnest  straw- 
boards  are  used,  but  for  better  classes  white  papers  are 
employed.  Obtainable  in  sheets  or  rolls,  corrugated  paper 
serves  as  protective  packing  for  many  classes  of  goods. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS  1 19 

Cover  Papers. — The  term  is  applied  to  a large  class  of 
fancy  papers,  made  in  many  shades,  substances  and 
sizes,  suitable  for  the  covers  of  pamphlets,  booklets, 
price  lists,  for  box  covering,  and  the  neutral  shades  for 
photographic  albums  and  mounts.  The  qualities  vary 
with  the  prices,  which  range  from  2d.  to  8d.  per  lb.,  the 
sizes  following  those  most  in  demand,  viz.,  medium  (for 
demy),  royal,  etc. 

Crayon  Papers. — Drawing  papers  specially  prepared  for 
crayon  work,  with  a rough  surface,  or  finished  smooth 
on  one  side.  Hand-made  or  machine-made  white  or 
tinted  papers  are  obtainable. 

Crepe  Papers. — Tissues  in  tints  and  deep  colours,  crinkled 
by  passing  through  rollers  bearing  the  pattern.  The 
paper  is  much  reduced  in  length,  often  to  less  than  half 
the  original  length.  Made  up  in  rolls  of  20  inches  wide, 
2J  yards  long.  Used  for  many  fancy  purposes,  candle 
and  lamp  shades,  artificial  flowers,  etc. 

Cutlery  Papers. — Thin  brown  papers,  glazed  on  one  or 
both  sides,  manufactured  with  special  care  to  avoid 
acidity,  so  that  they  are  sometimes  finished  with  some 
alkalinity  in  order  that  cutlery  and  similar  articles  wrapped 
in  the  paper  shall  not  be  liable  to  attack  from  residues 
in  the  paper. 

Drapers’  Caps.-— Very  thin  brown  papers,  glazed  on  one 
side  (M.G.),  made  of  wood  pulp,  used  for  wrapping 
small  articles  in  many  trades  besides  that  of  drapers  ; 
usual  size,  double  crown. 

Drawing  Papers  are  made  of  the  best  and  strongest  rag 
fibres,  free  from  impurities  of  all  kinds.  The  highest 
classes  of  drawing  papers  are  hand-made  from  un- 
bleached fibre,  tub-sized,  with  special  treatment  to 
avoid  deterioration  of  the  sizing,  air-dried,  and  finished 
with  various  surfaces  to  suit  different  purposes.  Machine- 
made  drawing  papers  are  made  of  similar  materials 
with  similar  treatment,  but  papers  of  very  fair  quality, 
made  entirely  of  chemical  wood  and  engine-sized,  are 
on  the  market.  Cartridge  papers  are  frequently  used 
as  substitutes  for  ordinary  machine-made  drawing  papers. 
The  usual  sizes  are  royal,  imperial,  double  elephant,  and 
antiquarian. 


20 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Drying  Royal. — Strong,  unsized  papers,  royal  in  size, 
used  in  copying  books  to  absorb  the  excess  of  moisture 
after  the  copying  paper  has  been  wetted.  Blotting 
paper  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  stand  the  handling 
to  which  the  drying  royal  is  subjected.  Hand-made 
papers  of  this  class  are  all-rag,  but  other  fibres  are  used 
for  some  of  those  made  on  the  machine.  Weight, 
44  lb.  or  88  lb.  per  ream  of  480  sheets. 

Duplex  Papers  may  be  made  of  two  layers  of  differently 
coloured  papers  brought  together  in  the  wet  state  and 
rolled  together,  or  may  be  coated  with  different  colours, 
after  the  paper  is  made,  as  duplex  art  papers. 

Duplicating  Papers. — Unsized  or  half-sized  papers  used 
for  taking  copies  on  cyclostyle,  mimeograph  and  similar 
duplicating  machines.  Best  qualities  are  composed 
largely  of  esparto,  but  the  common  varieties  contain 
mechanical  wood.  Usual  sizes : double  foolscap  24  lb., 
large  post  18  lb.  per  ream  of  480  sheets. 

Embossed  Papers. — Papers  of  various  qualities  and 
colours  are  run  through  rollers  engraved  with  patterns, 
by  which  means  the  papers  are  permanently  embossed. 
Hard  cover  papers  retain  the  patterns  better  than  softer 
papers,  but  many  kinds,  repp,  linen,  crash,  crocodile  and 
other  leather  patterns  are  made  upon  soft  papers.  Em- 
bossed papers  find  favour  as  cover  papers  and  box 
covering  papers. 

Enamelled  Papers  are  body  papers  with  a mineral  coating 
on  one  side,  white  or  coloured,  the  surface  being  highly 
polished.  Used  for  labels,  box  coverings,  and  outside 
wrappers  of  various  kinds,  printed  in  one  or  more 
colours. 

Engine-sized  Papers. — The  majority  of  papers  are  sized 
with  resin,  which  is  added  to  the  pulp  in  the  beating 
engine,  hence  the  term  “ engine-sized  ” (E.S.).  The 
attempts  to  size  with  animal  size  in  the  engine  are  not 
completely  successful,  as  a large  part  of  the  gelatine, 
being  in  solution,  goes  away  with  the  water.  Most 
machine-made  papers  which  are  tub-sized  are  to  some 
extent  engine-sized. 

Envelope  Papers. — All  kinds  of  paper  may  be  used  for 
envelope  making,  but  papers  highly  glazed  on  one  side 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS 


2 


are  usually  meant.  The  highly-glazed  surface  is  more 
suited  for  writing,  while  the  rougher  side  takes  the  gum 
for  the  flap  better  than  a burnished  surface.  Envelope 
papers  are  usually  cut  at  an  angle  to  prevent  waste 
when  cutting  out  blanks  for  envelopes.  Demonstration 
of  the  waste  involved  by  the  use  of  square  paper  can  be 
made  by  opening  an  ordinary  envelope,  and  marking  it 
out  on  an  ordinary  sheet  of  paper. 

Feather-weight  Paper. — A term  applied  to  bulky  book 
papers  much  in  favour  for  current  fiction.  The  fibre  is 
esparto,  beaten  quickly,  no  loading,  but  little  sizing, 
very  little  pressure  while  passing  through  the  machine. 
The  fibre  being  loose  occupies  a large  space,  and  the 
paper  is  very  light  for  ks  bulk,  hence  the  term.  Usual 
sizes  and  weights  : double  crown  30  to  60  lb.,  double 
demy  40  to  70  lb.,  and  quad  crown  55  to  120  lb.  per 
ream  of  516  sheets. 

Filter  Papers  are  used  in  chemical  laboratories  to  separate 
substances  in  suspension  from  liquids.  It  is  essential 
that  the  papers  be  entirely  free  from  chemicals,  and 
allow  liquids  to  pass  freely  while  retaining  suspended 
matter.  All-rag  fibre  is  used,  but  grey  filter  papers  may 
contain  a proportion  of  wool  fibre.  Filter  papers  are 
made  as  blotting  papers,  and  subjected  to  special  treat- 
ment to  remove  all  matter  that  is  likely  to  confuse 
chemical  analyses.  Usual  size,  24  by  24  inches. 

Foil  Papers. — Metals  reduced  to  fine  powder  are  dusted 
upon  the  paper  which  has  received  a coating  of  adhesive, 
and  when  all  is  dry  the  surface  is  highly  burnished. 
Embossed  foil  papers  are  passed  through  special  rolls. 
Used  for  covering  boxes  and  picture  mounts. 

Fruit  Paper. — Thin  papers,  similar  to  tissues  in  texture, 
but  much  lower  in  quality,  used  for  wrapping  fruits — 
apples,  oranges,  etc. — before  packing.  It  is  found  that 
this  isolation  justifies  the  trouble  and  expense,  an 
increased  percentage  of  sound  fruit  reaching  the  market. 
Some  wrappers  are  printed  with  the  merchant’s  name 
and  address. 

Glazed  Boards. — Millboards  which  are  given  a very  high 
surface  by  repeated  rolling. 


122 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Grass-bleached  Tissues. — This  term  is  applied  to  special 
tissues  to  describe  papers  quite  free  from  chemicals. 
The  ideal  method  of  bleaching  linen  is  by  exposing  on 
grass,  and  though  these  tissues  are  not  treated  in  that 
manner,  the  ideal  papers  which  will  not  tarnish  silver 
or  other  bright  metal  goods  are  so  described.  Used  for 
wrapping  silver  goods,  and  for  protecting  metal  decora- 
tions and  buttons  on  uniforms. 

Greaseproof  Papers. — Used  for  packing  butter,  lard,  and 
other  provisions ; may  be  prepared  as  such  in  the  pulp 
by  prolonged  beating,  “ wet  ” pulp  being  the  result  of 
long  beating.  The  resulting  paper  is  close,  transparent, 
and,  with  ordinary  sizing,  is  greaseproof.  Other  papers 
are  rendered  greaseproof  by  immersion  in  a bath  of 
albumen  and  salt,  this  giving  the  paper  an  impervious 
coating.  Vegetable  parchment  papers  are  used  for 
similar  purposes. 

Grocery  Papers.— The  well-known  blue  sugar  paper  and 
purple  sugar  bags  are  examples  of  this  class  of  paper. 
They  are  made  of  low-grade  pulps,  with  which  are 
mixed  waste  papers,  a moderate  amount  of  loading,  and 
aniline  colours.  The  squares  are  cut  at  the  mill  and 
bags  too  are  often  produced  at  the  paper  mill. 

Hosiery  Papers. — These  are  special  heavy  white  wrapping 
papers,  prepared  to  stand  a good  amount  of  handling, 
used  as  wrappers  for  packets  of  hosiery  stock,  and  for 
similar  purposes. 

Imitation  Art  Paper. — To  meet  the  demand  for  a cheaper 
paper  than  art  paper,  with  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  latter,  such  as  opacity,  absorbency,  and  a surface 
suitable  for  printing  half-tones,  imitation  art  papers  have 
been  introduced.  They  contain  a large  proportion  of 
loading,  and  receive  a good  surface,  the  water  finish 
being  usually  adopted.  Stocked  in  double  crown,  double 
demy,  double  royal,  quad  crown,  and  quad  demy. 

Impression  Papers. — Another  term  for  duplicating  papers. 
See  Duplicating  Papers. 

Index  Boards. — Pulp  boards  made  of  strong  stuff,  even, 
hard-sized,  well-rolled,  giving  a good  writing  surface.  It 
is  important  for  card  index  systems  to  employ  a card  which 
is  made  in  one  thickness  only  ; pasteboards  bend  and  split 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS 


123 


at  the  corners  if  frequently  handled.  The  uncut  boards 
should  be  perfectly  flat  in  order  that  ruling,  printing,  and 
cutting  may  be  executed  with  accuracy.  Guillotine  cutting 
is  not  so  satisfactory  as  cutting  singly  with  a hand  cutter 
or  rotary  cutting  on  a card  cutting  machine.  The  usual 
sizes  of  index  boards  are  20J  by  25^  inches  and 
30 \ by  25 J inches,  cutting  to  5 by  3 inches,  6 by  4 
inches  and  8 by  5 inches. 

India  Proof  Paper. — Thin  paper  made  from  the  inner 
fibres  of  bamboo  stems.  Extremely  soft  and  absorbent, 
it  is  therefore  eminently  suitable  for  taking  full-bodied 
impressions  in  plate  printing. 

Insulating  Papers. — For  insulating  wires  for  electric  cables. 
See  Anti-acid  Manillas  and  Cable  Papers. 

Ivory  Boards. — Hard,  white,  transparent  boards,  made  from 
well-beaten  stuff,  the  substance  being  obtained  by 
bringing  two  or  more  webs  of  moist  paper  together,  the 
junction  being  effected  by  rolling,  no  adhesive  being 
employed.  Ivories  are  obtainable  in  three  or  four 
substances,  white  or  cream,  and  are  used  for  high-class 
work,  such  as  visiting,  business,  and  menu  cards. 
Stocked  in  royal  boards,  and  also  in  various  cut  sizes. 

Japanese  Copying. — Specially  thin  and  strong  papers 
made  in  Japan  from  long  fibres,  used  for  copying  books. 
Japanese  papers  are  hand-made,  the  fibres  pulped  by 
hand,  the  sheets  made  on  moulds  of  bamboo  or  hair. 
The  length  of  fibre,  precluding  machine  making,  makes 
a paper  of  exceptional  wearing  qualities,  the  fibres 
pulling  apart,  and  not  tearing. 

Japanese  Vellum. — Thick  papers  made  of  Japanese  fibres, 
very  tough  and  durable,  almost  as  difficult  to  tear  as 
vellum.  Finished  with  a good  surface,  suitable  for 
certificates  and  various  jobs  where  very  tough  and 
durable  material  is  required.  Stock  sizes  from  crown 
to  imperial;  substance  about  19,  28,  38  lb.  demy  per 
ream  of  500  sheets;  price  about  2s.  3d.  per  lb. 

Kraft  Papers. — “ Kraft  ” means  strength,  and  this  is  the 
characteristic  of  these  papers.  Unbleached  wood  pulp 
is  the  material  used,  and  by  prolonged  boiling  with 
soda  under  comparatively  low  pressure,  the  fibres  receive 
less  drastic  chemical  treatment  than  is  usual  in  the 


124 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


preparation  of  wood  pulp.  Reduction  to  fibrous  state 
is  accomplished  by  the  edge  runner,  drawing  the  fibres 
out,  thus  retaining  the  length  and  strength.  Kraft 
papers  are  smooth,  light  brown  in  colour,  strong  and 
flexible,  and  are  used  for  wrappings  where  these  qualities 
are  required. 

Leather  Boards. — Millboards  made  of  strong  materials  to 
which  a proportion  of  leather  cuttings  may  be  added. 
Used  in  boot  and  portmanteau  manufacture. 

Leatherette. — Papers  used  for  box  covering  and  for  covers 
of  cheap  note-books.  Common  papers  made  to  colour 
of  the  leather  of  which  they  are  imitations,  either  as 
coloured  body  papers,  or  with  coloured  surface,  and 
then  embossed  with  leather  grain. 

Ledger  Papers. — Strong,  well-made  writing  papers,  used 
for  ledgers,  therefore  manufactured  to  withstand  con- 
siderable handling.  The  best  qualities  are  all-rag,  tub- 
sized,  air-dried,  plate-glazed,  quite  opaque,  with  equal 
surface  both  sides.  Usual  sizes  and  substances : demy 
24  lb.,  medium  34  lb.,  royal  44  lb.,  imperial  72  lb.  per 
ream  of  480  sheets. 

Lined  Brief. — Foolscap  paper  ruled  with  thirty-six  lines 
across  the  width  of  the  paper,  and  a vertical  marginal 
line.  Hand-made  and  high-class  machine-made  papers 
of  this  kind  have  the  lines  as  watermark. 

Linen-faced  Papers  receive  their  patterns  in  one  of  three 
ways:  (1)  by  passing  between  embossed  and  engraved 
rollers,  as  described  under  embossed  papers;  (2)  by 
interleaving  with  zinc  plates  upon  which  are  glued  sheets 
of  linen  and  passing  through  the  plate-rolling  machine ; 
(3)  sheets  of  linen  used  between  sheets  of  paper  to  be 
impressed,  metal  plates  top  and  bottom,  and  pressure 
applied  at  the  plate-rolling  machine.  Many  common 
papers  are  so  treated,  and  are  at  present  the  favourites 
among  fancy  note-papers,  silurian  note  Jbeing  quite 
eclipsed.  High-class  writings  and  cover  papers  are  also 
linen-faced. 

Lithographic  Papers. — Papers  for  lithographers’  general 
use,  with  good  super-calendered  surface,  frequently 
soft-sized,  the  manufacture  so  arranged  as  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  stretch  to  a minimum.  The  best  qualities 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS 


125 


are  made  of  rag,  the  next  quality  of  esparto.  With  the 
advent  of  the  off-set  litho.  press,  all  papers  have  become 
possible  as  lithographic  papers,  but  the  description 
applies  only  as  above. 

Loan  Papers. — Superior  cream  wove  papers,  made  of  the 
strongest  materials,  tub-sized  and  finished  with  a good 
writing  surface.  The  materials  and  treatment  are 
similar  to  those  employed  for  bank  papers,  but  the 
substances  are  heavier.  Usual  sizes,  medium,  double 
foolscap,  royal,  imperial,  equivalent  weights  20  to  40  lb. 
medium,  480  sheets. 

London  Boards. — Originally  boards  formed  by  pasting 
sheets  of  best  hand-made  drawing  paper.  Thick  paste- 
boards are  sometimes  supplied  as  London  boards. 

Long  Elephants  do  not  concern  the  ordinary  printer. 
They  are  used  by  paper  stainers,  that  is,  wall  paper 
printers.  They  form  the  ground  papers  for  wall  papers, 
are  frequently  of  the  same  materials  as  printing  papers, 
but  put  up  in  rolls  of  22^  inches  in  width,  with  a length 
of  12  yards. 

Magazine  Paper. — Soft  printing  paper  with  a good  super- 
calendered  surface  in  order  to  give  equal  printing 
surfaces  for  half-tone  illustrations  each  side  of  the  sheet. 
Imitation  art  papers  also  are  used  for  illustrated 
magazines. 

Manifold  (Typewriting)  Banks. — The  thinnest  sub- 
stances of  typewriting  papers  are  so  described  in  lighter 
weights  than  ordinarily  used  as  banks.  The  descrip- 
tions under  Banks  and  Typewriting  Papers  are  applicable 
to  Manifold  Banks. 

Manifold  Papers. — Papers  used  for  taking  copies  at  the 
time  of  making  the  original  by  writing  or  typewriting 
by  means  of  carbon  papers.  In  order  to  obtain  a better 
impression  of  the  original,  the  manifold  paper,  which 
is  a tissue,  is  impregnated  with  oil.  To  enable  the 
paper  to  take  ruling  and  printing  the  paper  is  allowed 
to  mature  for  some  time  to  allow  the  oil  to  become 
distributed  evenly  throughout  the  paper. 

Manilla  Papers. — Strong,  tough,  flexible  papers  made 
from  manilla  hemp.  Manilla  does  not  bleach  easily, 
the  so-called  white  manilla  papers  being  always  low  in 


126 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


colour.  These  papers  are  used  for  manilla  labels 
(parcel  tags),  cartons,  folders  in  index  systems,  cor- 
respondence covers,  index  cards,  and  for  work  where 
strength  and  durability  are  essential.  The  term 
“ manilla  ” is  now  applied  to  a class  of  paper  rather 
than  to  the  papers  made  entirely  or  principally  of 
manilla  fibre.  Many  such  papers  are  composed  of 
unbleached  chemical  wood  pulp,  a long-fibred  tough 
paper  resulting,  which  is  suitable  for  most  of  the  pur- 
poses for  which  manilla  papers  are  generally  employed. 
For  envelopes,  however,  the  genuine  article  is  not 
easily  replaced.  Low  grade  manillas  may  contain 
mechanical  wood.  Usual  size  and  weights : double 
crown,  80,  ioo,  120  lb.  per  ream  of  480  sheets. 

Map  Papers  are  thin  and  tough,  folding  without  cracking, 
usually  slightly  sized  with  animal  sizing.  Used  for 
printing  maps  which  are  to  be  folded  into  small 
compass. 

Marbled  Papers  are  used  for  covers  of  various  books, 
as  wholly  covering  the  book,  or  as  sides  in  half-  and 
quarter-binding,  but  the  principal  use  is  for  end  papers 
in  account  books.  High-class  marbled  papers  are  made 
a sheet  at  a time  in  the  following  manner : a trough  of 
gum  is  prepared,  the  colours  for  the  pattern  are 
sprinkled  and  dropped  upon  the  surface,  patterns  are 
made  by  combing  or  some  other  means  of  regularising 
the  design.  The  body  paper  is  let  down  carefully  to 
the  gum,  the  colour  adheres  to  the  paper,  and  the 
sheets  are  hung  to  dry.  Intricate  machines  are 
employed  to  make  marbled  papers,  depositing  the 
colours  for  transference  to  the  paper.  There  are 
many  patterns  of  marbling,  the  favourites  being  the 
Spanish,  shell,  and  nonpareil  designs,  carried  out  in  reds, 
blues,  and  greens.  Fancy  marbled  papers  are  sold,  but 
binders  are  conservative  in  their  tastes.  Cheap  marbled 
papers  are  produced  by  lithography. 

Metallic  Paper  is  a coated  paper  for  special  uses,  such  as 
note-books  for  indelible  writing,  in  which  case  writing 
with  a metal  stylus  or  indelible  pencil  is  easily  made, 
but  cannot  be  erased ; for  indicator  diagrams  for  various 
instruments  where  a light  touch  only  can  be  given,  but 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS 


127 


the  diagram  is  faithfully  recorded.  A good  quality 
paper  is  coated  with  a mixture  of  glue  and  zinc  oxide, 
usually  applied  by  hand  and  finished  in  the  same  wray  as 
art  papers.  Cheaper  metallic  papers  are  coated  with 
barium  sulphate. 

Middles. — The  materials  for  middles  (of  pasteboards)  vary 
from  waste  paper  to  all-esparto  fibre.  Grey  middles 
contain  a large  proportion  of  waste,  mechanical  wood 
and  added  mineral  matter,  while  white  middles  are  usually 
free  from  mechanical  wood  and  of  very  fair  strength. 
Made  on  the  Fourdrinier  machine,  and  left  with  machine 
finish,  in  order  that  the  subsequent  pasting  of  facing 
papers  may  be  more  thoroughly  performed.  In  addition 
to  their  use  for  pasteboards,  middles  are  used  for 
tramway  and  bus  tickets,  frequently  being  tinted  in  the 
pulp. 

Millboards  are  made  from  various  waste  fibres  and  waste 
papers.  Hand-made  and  the  best  machine-made  boards 
are  made  from  hemp  and  flax  fibres,  the  commoner 
machine-made  from  waste  papers  with  or  without  long 
fibred  material.  The  raw  materials  are  reduced  to  pulp 
(the  stronger  materials  boiled  and  beaten),  made  into 
boards  in  hand  moulds  or  on  special  board  machines, 
pressed,  dried,  heavily  rolled,  trimmed  to  size.  Used 
for  binding,  boxmaking,  portmanteaux,  carriage  panels, 
etc.  (see  page  143  for  sizes  and  substances). 

Mould-made  Papers  come  between  hand-  and  machine- 
made  papers,  having  most  of  the  characteristics  of 
hand-mades.  The  moulding  is  mechanical,  but  the 
other  operations  are  carried  out  as  for  hand-made  papers. 
Four  deckled  edges  will  be  present. 

Music  Papers,  used  for  printing  sheet  music,  are  thick 
printing  papers  with  a moderate  amount  of  sizing,  and 
with  machine  finish,  making  an  easy  printing  surface 
for  music  type,  plates,  or  lithographic  surfaces.  Usual 
size:  demy,  20J  inches  by  14J  inches,  24  to  28  lb.  per 
ream  of  480  sheets. 

News. — Common  printing  papers,  containing  60  to  80  per 
cent,  of  mechanical  wood,  a small  amount  of  loading, 
and  very  little  sizing.  Suitable  for  news  and  other  work 
of  an  ephemeral  nature.  Supplied  in  reels  or  sheets. 


128 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Non-curling-  Gummed  Paper.  — Specially  prepared 
gummed  paper,  the  body  paper  being  made  as  nearly 
free  from  stretch  as  possible,  and  the  coating  of  gum, 
when  dry,  is  broken  into  fine  particles  by  drawing  the 
finished  paper  over  a steel  bar.  This  prevents  the  film 
of  gum  from  acting  as  a single  surface,  and  only  when 
the  particles  again  cohere  is  the  non-curling  property 
destroyed. 

Oiled  Paper. — See  Manifold  Paper  and  Stencil  Paper. 

Onion  Skin. — A term  applied  to  thin,  hard,  highly  glazed 
translucent  papers,  because  of  their  resemblance  to  the 
thin  outer  skin  of  the  onion. 

O.  W.  Papers  are  specially  prepared  for  water  colour 
drawings,  the  rags  being  reduced  to  pulp  without  chemical 
treatment,  without  bleaching.  The  papers  are  tested 
for  chemical  purity.  Usual  sizes  of  drawing  papers. 

Pamphlet  Papers. — Tinted  papers  of  various  substances, 
used  for  covers  of  pamphlets,  and  for  a large  variety 
of  jobbing  work  where  a paper  of  fair  weight  is  required. 

Parcel  Tape  Paper  is  supplied  in  various  widths  and 
qualities,  from  ordinary  gummed  paper  to  kraft  brown 
with  gummed  back ; used  for  fastening  small  parcels 
instead  of  string  or  wax.  Supplied  in  coils  for  use 
with  a special  damping  machine. 

Parchment  Papers.— Properly,  parchmented  papers,  *.<?., 
the  cellulose  of  which  the  paper  is  composed  is  altered 
in  character  to  resemble  parchment.  A web  of  unsized 
paper  is  passed  through  a bath  of  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
which  attacks  and  dissolves  the  cellulose,  changing  its 
fibrous  form.  Before  the  change  is  complete  the  paper 
is  washed,  the  acid  is  neutralised,  and  the  paper  dried. 
The  papef  shrinks  considerably,  but  is  greaseproof  and 
much  stronger  than  before  treatment.  Vegetable  parch- 
ment and  pergamyn  are  alternative  names  for  the  same 
material.  Used  as  an  impervious  packing  paper  for 
provisions,  for  tea  packing,  jam  covers,  etc. 

Pasteboards. — Cardboards  formed  by  pasting  fine  papers 
to  middles  of  inferior  quality.  Distinct  from  triplex, 
ivory,  and  pulp  boards. 

Pastings. — Papers  for  pasting  down ; facings  for  paste- 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS  129 

boards ; covering  paper  used  by  boxmakers ; white  or 
coloured. 

Plate  Papers. — Thick,  soft  printing  papers,  made  of  good 
material,  soft-sized.  The  thicker  kinds  are  made  by 
bringing  two  or  more  webs  together  in  the  wet  state 
and  pressing  them  together,  one  side  only  being 
calendered.  Used  for  taking  impressions  from  engraved 
copper  and  steel  plates,  also  for  fine  lithography.  Usual 
sizes  and  weights  are  crown,  demy,  royal,  and  double 
crown,  equivalent  to  40  to  60  lb.  demy. 

Porcelain  Paper. — Thick  transparent  paper  of  the  nature 
of  celluloid,  made  of  well-beaten  pulp.  Used  for 
Christmas  cards  and  similar  work. 

Portmanteau  Boards. — Tough  boards  used  for  the  shapes 
or  shells  of  portmanteaux  and  trunks,  over  which  the 
leather  or  canvas  cover  is  fixed.  Manufactured  as 
millboards,  flax  and  hemp  fibres  being  employed. 

Pottery  Tissues. — Tissue  papers  specially  prepared  for 
printing  transfers  for  pottery  decoration.  The  printing 
is  from  copperplate,  engraved  rolls,  or  lithographic 
surface,  and  the  pattern  is  transferred  to  the  china  or 
earthenware  before  glazing. 

Press  Boards. — Thin,  hard  glazed  boards,  made  of  the 
best  materials  ( see  Millboards).  Heavily  rolled  and 
friction  glazed.  Used  for  interleaving  work  which  is 
to  be  hot  or  cold  pressed. 

Pressings. — Thick  coloured  papers,  made  on  the  single 
cylinder  machine,  therefore  with  M.G.  surface.  Used 
for  the  covers  of  exercise  books,  for  box  covering,  etc. 

Printings. — A large  class  of  papers,  which  are  usually  made 
with  a fair  surface,  machine  finish.  Printings  are 
moderately  sized,  so  as  to  absorb  ink  readily,  and  only 
a small  quantity  of  loading  is  added.  The  materials 
used  include  all  the  fibres  which  will  bleach  well ; hand- 
made printings  are  tub-sized,  machine-made  are  all  engine- 
sized. Rag,  rag  and  esparto,  chemical  wood  and  esparto, 
chemical  wood,  chemical  and  mechanical  wood  papers 
are  the  varieties  obtainable,  white  or  toned.  Super- 
calendered,  imitation  art,  and  art  papers  can  be  included 
under  this  heading,  but  they  are  usually  treated  sepa- 
rately. Sizes,  weights,  and  prices  on  pp.  136-37. 


9 


1 3o 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Profile  Papers  are  specially  ruled  papers  for  the  use  of 
engineers  and  surveyors ; ruled,  or  printed  from  engraved 
roll.  The  usual  pattern  has  quarter-inch  squares, 
divided  into  five  horizontal  sections. 

Programme  Papers. — Soft  papers,  white  or  tinted,  used 
for  concert  programmes,  in  order  that  there  shall  be  no 
rustle  when  the  pages  are  turned.  The  light  weight 
(44  lb.)  of  drying  royal  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
programme  paper. 

Pulp  Boards  are  boards  of  one  thickness  only,  made  on  the 
Fourdrinier  machine,  well  sized,  well  rolled,  in  various 
substances  and  qualities,  and  in  a variety  of  useful  tints. 
Used  for  all  purposes  for  which  cards  are  employed. 

Railway  Buffs. — Cheap  buff  papers  used  for  forms  and 
envelopes  for  railway  business.  Forms  are  printed  on 
glazed  buffs,  super-calendered  papers ; envelopes  are 
made  from  M.G.  buffs. 

Rocket  Paper. — Thick  coarse  paper  used  for  making  cases 
for  rockets  and  other  fireworks.  White,  coloured,  or 
fancy  papers  are  pasted  on  the  outside  of  the  firework 
cases,  and  the  touch  paper  fastened  on  last. 

Royal  Hands. — A term  used  for  wrapping  papers  made  to 
royal  size  (24  by  19  inches). 

Safety  Cheque  Papers  are  specially  prepared  by  printing, 
as  a groundwork,  a small  design  in  ink  which  is  fugitive 
if  treated  with  chemicals,  or  if  erasure  is  attempted. 
Other  safety  papers  are  made  by  adding  sensitive 
chemicals  to  the  pulp,  or  by  impregnating  the  finished 
paper.  These  additions  act  as  detectives,  as  any 
alteration  or  attempt  to  remove  the  original  writing 
results  in  coloured  patches  which  betray  the  work. 

Sampling  Papers. — Coloured  papers  used  for  the  display 
of  textile  and  other  samples,  usually  deep  blue  or  deep 
yellow.  Made  in  medium,  25  lb.  per  ream  of  480 
sheets,  and  also  supplied  in  rolls. 

Sealings. — Thin  tough  M.G.  papers  used  as  parcel  papers. 
Being  glazed  on  one  side,  sealing  wax  adheres  readily 
to  the  rough  side.  Made  in  various  substances  and 
colours. 

Sectional  Papers  are  papers  with  squares  of  definite 
measurement,  -J,  y1^,  4*2,  4V  inch,  or  millimetre 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS 


31 


ruling.  The  larger  squares  are  ruled,  the  smaller 
are  printed  from  engraved  rolls  or  from  electrotypes  of 
engraved  plates.  Printed  on  drawing  paper,  also  on 
thin  paper  for  subsequent  reproduction  by  contact  with 
sensitized  papers. 

Sensitized  Paper. — -Various  papers  for  photographic 
printing,  the  paper  receiving  treatment  after  making. 
The  emulsions  are  made  and  applied  to  the  surface  of 
the  papers,  or  the  paper  is  passed  through  a solution  of 
sensitive  salts.  The  developing  after  printing  is  done  in 
another  solution  or  in  water,  according  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  paper. 

Shops. — White  papers  for  packing,  either  glazed  or  unglazed  ; 
white  grocery  papers  are  shops.  Substances  equivalent 
to  demy,  40  to  48  lb.;  sizes:  demy,  royal,  28  by 
20  inches  and  in  rolls. 

Silurian. — Grey  paper  mottled  with  blue  fibres.  The  pulps 
are  coloured  separately  with  fast  dyes,  and  a small 
proportion  of  the  darker  fibres  added  to  the  grey  pulp. 

Skips. — Thin  packing  papers  for  lining  skips  or  crates  in 
which  various  goods  are  packed. 

Small  Hands. — Thin  M.G.  wrapping  papers,  made  of  the 
commonest  pulps. 

Squared  Papers. — Ruled  or  printed  squares  of  various 
sizes  on  drawing,  cartridge,  and  tracing  papers.  See 
Sectional  Paper. 

Stencil  Paper  (Oiled). — Thick  strong  paper  used  for  cutting 
stencils  for  decorators.  Manilla  or  other  papers  of  good 
strength  and  substance  are  soaked  in  linseed  oil,  and 
sometimes  varnished  on  one  side. 

Stencil  Papers  (Waxed)  are  used  in  connection  with 
cyclostyle,  mimeograph  and  similar  machines.  Thin, 
strong,  unsized  papers  are  coated  with  wax,  and  a stencil 
is  actually  made  by  removing  the  wax  in  various  ways. 
For  stencils  made  by  handwriting  the  wax  is  removed 
by  writing  with  a stylus  on  a file  plate  or  a metal  plate 
covered  with  bolting  silk,  or  a cyclostyle  pen,  having  a 
wheel  at  its  tip,  is  used,  making  a series  of  perforations 
through  the  waxed  paper.  With  the  typewriter  the  wax 
is  removed  by  a blow  of  the  letter  upon  a tissue  which 
is  placed  in  front  of  the  stencil  paper.  Wherever  wax 


132 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


is  perforated  or  removed  ink  can  be  forced  through  the 
stencil,  and  the  prints,  although  not  always  showing  the 
broken  lines  of  stencil  work,  are  actually  produced  by 
stencil  process.  On  account  of  the  strength  of  long 
fibred  papers,  Japanese  tissues  are  usually  employed  as 
the  basis  of  stencil  papers. 

Stereotyping  Papers. — Tissues,  grey  blottings,  and  brown 
papers,  as  used  in  making  stereo  flong,  are  included  in 
this  category.  It  is  possible  to  obtain  flong  papers  made 
on  the  paper  machine,  the  three  papers  being  made 
separately  and  brought  together  before  the  couch  rolls 
are  reached. 

Strawboards. — The  cheapest  boards  obtainable  for  binding 
and  mounting  purposes.  Made  from  straw,  boiled  with 
lime  and  reduced  to  pulp,  manufactured  into  boards 
of  various  substances.  Usual  sizes,  30  by  25  inches, 
32  by  22  inches,  the  boards  being  made  up  into  bundles 
weighing  56  lb.,  the  weight  of  individual  boards 
governing  the  number  in  a bundle,  e.g,  8 oz.  board, 
1 12  to  bundle,  2J  lb.  22  in  bundle,  etc. 

Sulphite  Browns. — Brown  wrapping  papers  made  from 
unbleached  sulphite  wood  pulp  producing  very  strong 
papers. 

Super-calendered  Papers. — Term  applied  to  printing 
papers  which  have  received  a high  surface  by  passing 
through  the  super-calender  rolls ; but  most  writings,  art, 
manilla,  and  coloured  papers  receive  their  finish  in  the 
same  manner. 

Tea  Cartridges. — Generally  made  from  chemical  wood, 
but  in  some  cases  a mixture  of  rag  and  chemical  wood 
is  employed.  Engine-sized,  supplied  in  sheets  or  reels, 
substance  equivalent  to  14  to  34  lb.  demy. 

Ticket  Boards. — Pasteboards  with  good  white  or  coloured 
facing  papers,  sometimes  coated,  white  or  coloured ; 
used  by  ticket  writers  for  window  tickets. 

Tips. — Binders’  tips  are  very  thin  millboards.  Trunk 
makers’  tips  are  thick,  tough  brown  papers. 

Tissues. — Fine  thin  papers,  made  of  strong  materials  such 
as  rag  and  hemp  fibres,  beaten  very  finely.  Other 
tissues  are  made  of  chemical  wood  and  a proportion  of 
straw  pulp.  Papers  are  unsized,  used  for  wrapping  and 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PAPERS 


33 


protective  purposes.  Usual  size  and  weight : double 
crown  7 lb.  per  ream  of  500  sheets. 

Tobacco  Papers. — Papers  used  for  packing  small  quantities 
of  the  cheaper  tobaccos  ; with  good  printing  surface. 
Substance  and  sizes,  28  to  30  lb.  demy. 

Toilet  Papers. — Very  thin  M.G.  papers  put  up  in  packets 
of  cut  pieces,  or  in  rolls  with  or  without  perforation. 

Tracing  Papers. — Thin  papers  specially  treated  with  a 
coating  consisting  of  a mixture  of  certain  gums  and 
turpentine.  Other  papers  used  for  tracing  are  glazed 
imitation  parchments.  Used  for  tracing  maps,  plans, 
drawings,  etc. 

Transfer  Papers. — Specially  coated  papers  for  transferring 
designs  to  lithographic  printing  surfaces.  Opaque  or 
transparent  papers  are  used,  according  to  the  use  of  the 
paper,  whether  it  is  merely  as  a transfer  paper  or  also  as 
a tracing  paper.  The  coating  mixture  is  such  as  will 
readily  strip  from  the  paper  when  put  down  on  stone 
and  the  back  is  damped,  all  the  ink  of  the  transfer  being 
left  on  the  stone. 

Triplex  Boards  are  made  on  a cylinder  machine,  three 
webs  being  brought  together  in  the  wet  state,  but  rolled, 
dried,  and  finished  as  a single  web. 

Tube  Papers. — Soft  unsized  papers,  made  with  a good 
percentage  of  rag,  for  making  tubes  or  spools  on  which 
the  yarn  for  spinning  machines  is  wound. 

Typewriting  Papers. — Strong  bank  papers  of  good  appear- 
ance, unglazed,  used  for  correspondence  and  other  type- 
written matter.  The  extra  superfine  qualities  are  all- 
rag, tub-sized ; some  of  the  lower  grades,  chemical  wood, 
engine-sized. 

Vegetable  Parchment. — Another  name  for  parchment  or 
parchmented  paper.  See  Parchment  Paper. 

Vellum  Papers. — (1)  Name  applied  to  writing  papers  with 
a good  writing  surface,  not  so  smooth  as  super-calendered 
papers,  but  nearer  to  the  surface  of  a well-finished 
vellum.  Usually  vellum  woves,  although  laid  papers 
with  vellum  finish  are  supplied.  (2)  Thick,  strong, 
fine  papers,  used  for  engravings.  See  Japanese  Vellum  . 

Waterproof  Papers  for  packing  purposes  are  made  by 
coating  strong  wrappings  with  tar  or  bitumen,  and  rolling 


34 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


scrim  on  to  the  surface  to  prevent  the  coating  coming  in 
contact  with  the  contents  of  the  package.  A coating 
between  two  sheets  of  thin  wrapping  paper  is  another 
method  of  waterproofing.  Used  for  protecting  goods 
from  the  influence  of  moisture.  Roofing  paper  is  a 
variety  of  waterproof  paper  prepared  by  coating  strong 
papers  with  tar. 

Waxed  Paper. — Thin  paper  passed  through  a bath  of 
melted  paraffin  wax  which  makes  it  perfectly  impervious 
to  moisture.  Used  for  packing  goods  which  are  liable 
to  deterioration  if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

Whatman  Boards  are  made  by  pasting  sheets  of  “What- 
man ” drawing  paper  together  until  the  desired  thickness 
of  board  is  attained.  Boards  only  faced  with  “What- 
man ” paper  are  also  supplied  under  this  name. 

Wheatstone  Paper. — Blue  tinted  paper  cut  to  narrow 
width  for  use  in  the  tape  machine,  the  telegraphic 
messages  being  recorded  on  the  paper  strip. 

Willesden  Paper. — Strong  paper  rendered  impervious  to 
moisture  by  immersion  in  a solution  made  copper  in 
ammonia.  The  surface  of  the  paper  is  thus  partially 
dissolved,  and  the  paper  is  washed,,  rolled,  and  dried.  If 
a thick  sheet  is  desired,  thinner  sheets  are  brought 
together  while  wet  and  consolidated  by  rolling. 

Wiping-off  Papers. — Papers  used  for  relief  stamping 
machines,  usual  substance  demy  20  to  30  lb. ; in  widths 
2 inches,  2\  inches,  3 inches,  3J  inches,  4 inches,  5 
inches,  6 inches,  7 inches,  7^  inches,  9 inches, 
10  J inches. 

Wrapping  Papers  are  described  under  the  heads  of  Bag, 
Biscuit  Caps,  Browns,  Caps,  Carbolic,  Casings,  Cork, 
Corrugated,  Cutlery,  Drapers,  Fruit,  Grocery,  Hosiery, 
Kraft,  Parchment,  Rocket,  Royal  Hands,  Sealings,  Shops, 
Skips,  Small  Hands,  Sulphite  Browns,  Tea  Cartridges, 
Tobacco  Papers.  Sizes,  weights,  and  prices  on  page  142. 

Writings. — Hard-sized  papers  of  all  kinds  are  suitable  for 
writing,  but  an  even  paper  of  good  surface  is  essential. 
See  under  Account  Book,  Bank-note,  Banks,  Bill,  Cheque, 
Ledger,  Lined  Brief,  Loan,  Safety  Cheque,  Silurian, 
Typewriting,  Vellum  Papers.  Sizes,  weights,  and  prices 
on  pp.  138-39. 


TABLES  OF  SIZES,  WEIGHTS,  AND 
PRICES 


Sizes  of  Note  and  Letter  Papers 

Arranged  Alphabetically 


Fancy  Names. 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Cut  Paper  Sizes. 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Albert 

3fx6 

Copy  4to  - 

7f  x 9t 

Czarina  - 

4-i  x 6 

„ 8 VO 

4 f x l\ 

Duchess  - 

4-i  x 6 

Demy  4to 

7-1  x 9 f 

Duke 

4|x6j 

„ 8 vo 

4i  x 7i 

Emperor  - 

52  x 74 

Foolscap  folio  - 

8 x 13 

Empire 

4i*6i 

„ 4to  - 

61x8 

Princeps  - 

4i  X 5f 

Large  post  ,, 

8x10 

Princess  - 

44  x 5s 

„ 8vo  - 

5 xg 

Prince  of  Wales 

3 x4 

Medium  4to 

8f  x io| 

Queen 

34  x 5t 

„ 8vo 

5S  x s§ 

Regina 

4f  x6f 

Post  4to  - 

7§  x 9 

Viscount  - 

5 x6J 

„ 8vo  - 

44x7 

[ 

Arranged  in  Order  of  Size 

Prince  of  Wales 

3 x 4J 

Demy  8vo 

4|x  7i 

Queen 

34  x 5f 

Viscount  - 

5 x6| 

Albert 

3|x6 

Emperor  - 

5^x71 

Princess  - 

44  x 5s 

Large  post  8vo  - 

5 x 8 

Princeps  - 

4i  x 5f 

Medium  8vo 

5t  x 8f 

Duchess  - 

4i  X 6 

Foolscap  4to  - 

6|  x 8 

Empire  - 

4ix6i 

Post  4to  - 

7 f X 9 

Czarina  - 

4i  x 6 

Demy  4to 

78  x 9l 

Post  8vo  - 

4lx  7 

Copy  4to  - 

7|x9f 

Regina 

4 if  x 6|- 

Large  post  4to  - 

8x10 

Duke 

4fx6| 

Medium  4to 

8-|  x io| 

Copy  8vo- 

45X7J 

Foolscap  folio  - 

8x13 

35 


136 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Sizes  of  Printing  Papers,  Etc.1  With  the 
Extremes  of  trie  Usual  Stock  Weights 


Name  of  Paper. 

Size  in 

Inches. 

Area  in  Square 
Inches. 

Extremes  of 
Stock  Weights. 

Lb.  per  ream. 

Pott  - 

15 

X 

I21 

1872 

5-13 

Foolscap 

17 

X 

!3i 

229J 

6-l8 

Post  - 

l9i 

X 

15i 

298® 

!5-25 

Music  demy 

2o| 

X 

14® 

298® 

24-28 

Crown 

20 

X 

15 

3°° 

6-20 

Copy  - 

20 

X 

l64 

33° 

10-20 

Large  post  - 

2 I 

X 

i62 

346! 

IO-4O 

Double  pott 

25 

X 

*5 

375 

IO-25 

Demy 

22\ 

X 

Us 

393® 

10-60 

Medium 

23 

X 

18 

414 

18-30 

Double  foolscap  - 

27 

X 

i7 

459 

i°-35 

Royal - 

25 

X 

20 

5°° 

16-70 

Super-royal 

27i 

X 

20I 

563® 

20-40 

Double  crown 

3° 

X 

20 

600 

1 1-80 

„ post 

3xi 

X 

J9i 

6o6§ 

30-50 

Elephant  - 

28 

X 

23 

644 

24-60 

I mperial 

30 

X 

22 

660 

30-60 

Double  large  post 

33 

X 

21 

693 

20-60 

Quad  pott  - 

3° 

X 

25 

75° 

20-50 

Double  demy 

35 

X 

22\ 

7872 

22-120 

,,  medium  - 

36 

X 

23^ 

828 

30-60 

Quad  foolscap  - 

34 

X 

27 

9 1 8 

20-70 

Double  royal 

40 

X 

25 

1,000 

30-70 

„ globe  - 

33 

X 

28 

1,064 

60-100 

,,  elephant  - 

40 

X 

27 

1,080 

40-100 

Quad  crown 

40 

X 

3° 

1,200 

20-120 

Double  imperial  - 

44 

X 

3° 

1,320 

60  1 20 

Quad  demy 

45 

X 

35 

H575 

40-240 

„ royal 

5° 

X 

40 

2,000 

60-120 

„ globe 

56 

X 

38 

2,128 

120-140 

1 Including  coloured  papers,  and  papers  detailed  on  next  page. 


TABLES  OF  SIZES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  PRICES  1 37 


Extremes  of  Weights  and  Prices.1 
Printings,  Etc. 


Equivalent 

Description  of  Paper. 

Weights  in 
Demy,  480 

Prices  per  lb. 

Remarks  as  to  Number 
of  Sheets,  etc. 

sheets. 

Antique  book  paper 

Lb. 

18-40 

ifd.  to  6|d. 

Woveorlaid:  516 

Art 

24-5O 

2|d.  „ 4d. 

One-  or  two- 
sided:  480  or  5161 

Bible  papers  ( see 
Oxford  India  paper) 
Chart  - 

14-48 

4 £d.  to  8d. 

... 

480 

Chromo 

1 3-5° 

4d.  „ 6|d. 

480  : Weights  given 

are  those  of  uncoated 
papers,  also  sold,  with- 
out weight  specified, 
as  “thick ’’and  “thin  ” 

Collotype 

35'®° 

4id.  „ 7d. 

Cover  - 
Etching 

1856 

2jd.  „ 6d. 

5j6 

Greaseproof  (or 

I 1-20 

ifd.  to  3|d. 

Double  crown  : 

imitation  vegetable 
parchment) 

480 

Imitation  art  - 

2 2-40 

2d.  „ 2|d. 

5l6 

Litho.  - 

20-60 

2^d.  „ 4d. 

480  to  5 16 

M.G.  poster  - 

16-20 

2d.  „ 2|d. 

News  printing 

I 1-22 

ifd.  „ ifd. 

500 

Oxford  India  paper 

9-1 1 

7d.  to  is.  2d. 

480,  504 

>>  5J  J) 

10-12 

3d.  to  6d. 

(imitation) 
Plan  - 

20-24 

3i<J-  ..  3fd- 

480,  516 

Plate 

Printing — 

20-100 

4d.  „ 7 id- 

516 

Hand-made 

2 0-40 

9jd.  ,,  is.6d. 

480 

Mould-made 

3°-4° 

6|d.  „ 8d. 

480 

Machine-made 

13-40 

ifd.  „ 6d. 

480,  516 

Super-calendered  - 

15-40 

,,  3?6. 

480,  516 

Tissues  - 

5-6 

3id-  » Iod- 

500 : Usually 

double  crown 

Vegetable  parch- 

11-27 

4d.  „ 4 jd. 

480 : Usually 

ment 

double  crown 

1 The  prices  given  in  this  section  are  for  small  quantities  from  stock. 
Special  sizes  may  be  liable  to  an  extra  charge  for  cutting.  Special  makings 
and  large  quantities  are  usually  subject  to  a reduction  of  |d.  per  lb. 


38 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Sizes  of  Writing  Papers,  Etc.1  With  the 
Extremes  of  the  Usual  Stock  Weights 


Name  of  Paper. 

Size  in  Inches. 

Area  in 
Square  Inches. 

Extremes  of 
Stock  Weights. 

Pott  - 

15  x 1 2 2 

187J 

Lb.  per  ream. 
7-12 

Foolscap 

i6j x 134 

2i8| 

7-22 

Pinched  post 

18J x i4f 

272J 

IO-28 

Post  - 

xi5t 

289! 

I I-30 

Demy- 

20  x 15I 

31° 

20-25 

Sheet-and-a-half 

foolscap 

24| x 13J 

324s 

24 

Copy  - 

20  x i6£ 

33° 

15-19 

Large  post  - 

21  x 16J 

346^ 

1 1-28 

Double  pott 

25  XI5 

375 

14-40 

Medium 

22  x 17^ 

385 

I3"34 

Double  foolscap  - 

26J  x i6| 

437  i 

14-40 

Royal 

24  x 19 

456 

28-44 

Super-royal 

27  X19I 

5‘9! 

52-54 

Double  post 

3°2  X z9 

5791 

20-60 

„ demy 

31  x 20 

620 

40-50 

Elephant  - 

28  x 23 

644 

40-60 

Imperial 

30  x 22 

660 

70-72 

Double  large  post 

33  x 21 

693 

20-60 

Atlas  - 

34  x 26 

884 

85-100 

Double  royal 

38  x 24 

912 

54-88 

„ elephant  - 

40  x 27 

1,080 

130-140 

„ imperial  - 

44  X30 

I>32° 

140 

Including  coloured  paper  and  papers  detailed  in  next  page. 


TABLES  OF  SIZES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  PRICES  1 39 


Extremes  of  Weights  and  Prices, 
Writings,  Etc. 


Description  of  Paper. 

Equivalent 
Weight  in 
Demy, 
480  sheets. 

Price  per  lb. 

Hand-made — 

Bank  - 

Ledger  - - 

Loan  - 

Writing  - - 

Machine-made — 

Banks — tub-sized 
,,  engine-sized  - 

Blottings  - 

,,  interleaving  - 

Bonds — tub-sized 
,,  engine-sized  - 

Copying  - 
Duplicating 
Ledger — tub-sized 
,,  engine-sized 

Typewriting  - 

Writings — tub-sized  - 
,,  engine-sized 

Lb. 

12 

32-44 

12-25 

20-26 

5_I4 
5_I4 
28-140 
10-19 
12-25 
12-25 
3-18 
14-18 
32-44 
32-44 
5_I4 
12-42 
1 2-42 

is.  8d.  to  2S.  iod. 
iod.  „ is.  9d. 

IS.  „ 2S. 

iod. ,,  is.  9d. 

5d.  „ is.  8d. 
2^d.  „ iod. 

3d.  „ 8d. 

2^d.  „ 6d. 

5d.  „ is.  3d. 
3d.  „ 9d. 

4d.  „ is.  5d. 

2^d.  „ 3jd. 

4d. ,,  io|d. 
2|d.  „ 5d. 

3d.  „ is.  8d. 
4d.  „ is.  id. 
2|d.  „ 3Jd. 

Drawings 

1 

Hand-made  - 

25-75 

IS.  to  2S. 

Machine-made — tub-sized 

25-40 

4d.  ,,  iod. 

,,  engine-sized- 

25-40 

2|d.  „ 7d. 

Cartridges 

Tub-sized  - 

24-60 

3^d.  to  io|d. 

Engine-sized  - 

24-60 

2|d-  „ 3|d. 

140 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Sizes  of  Cards 

Showing  how  to  Cut  Out  of  Royal  Board 


Name. 

Size  in  Inches. 

Number  out  of 
Royal  Board, 
25  in.  X20  in. 

Method  of 
cutting  out. 

25  in. 

20  in. 

way. 

way. 

Half  small  - 

2|  X 1 

IO4 

!3 

8 

Third  large  - 

3 *4 

96 

8 

12 

Extra  third  - 

3 x i j 

88 

8 

1 1 

Town  - 

3x2 

72 

8 

9 

Half  large  - 

3 x 2i 

64 

8 

8 

Reduced  small 

3h  x 2s 

55 

1 1 

5 

Small  - 

3f  X 2f 

5° 

10 

5 

Carte-de-visite 

4ix  2l 

36 

9 

4 

Large  - 

42  x 3 

32 

8 

4 

Double  small 

4f  x3l 

25 

5 

5 

Correspondence  and 

4i  x 3i 

25 

5 

5 

square  post-card 

Post-card  (official  size)  - 

5l  x 3J 

20 

4 

5 

Large  court  8vo  - 

4f  x 4 

24 

6 

4 

Intimation  - 

6 x 3! 

20 

4 

5 

Double  large 

6 x4  -i- 

16 

4 

4 

Cabinet 

62  x 4i 

T5 

5 

3 

Quad  small  - 

7i  X 4f 

12 

3 

4 

Quad  large  - 

9x6 

8 

4 

2 

Index  Cards 

Showing  Method  of  Cutting  Out  of  Index  Boards, 
25!  in.  x 2o\  in.  and  30J  in.  x 25J  in. 


Size  of  Index 
Card  in  Inches. 

Number  out  of 
Board, 

25J  in.  X 2o£  in. 

Method  of 
cutting  out. 

Number  out  of 
Board, 

3<4  in.  X 25^  in. 

Method  of 
cutting  out. 

5X3 

32 

25J  in.  2o£  in. 
way.  way. 

8 4 

5° 

3°i  in.  25^  in. 
way.  way. 

10  5 

6x4 

20 

4 

5 

3° 

5 

6 

8X5 

12 

3 

4 

18 

6 

3 

TABLES  OF  SIZES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  PRICES  141 


Extreme  Prices  of  Boards 

Royal , 20  in.  x 25  in.,  except  where  other  sizes  are  stated 


Description  of  Boards. 

Substances. 

Prices 

per 

Gross. 

Antique  and  pro- 

5s- 

to 

23s. 

gramme 

Art,  coated  both 

4 to  5 sheet 

7s.  6d. 

JJ 

22S. 

sides 

Art,  coated  one  side 

5 „ 10  ,> 

IIS. 

JJ 

26s. 

Bristol  (royal,  22 J 

2 j)  6 ,, 

3s- 

>> 

I os. 

in.  x 18  in.) 
Chromo,  coated  one 

3 j,  12  „ 

9s- 

JJ 

3°9. 

side 

Cloth-lined  and 

17s.  6d. 

>J 

26s. 

cloth-centred 

Ivory  - 

Various  thicknesses 

8s.  6d. 

JJ 

3°s. 

Pasteboards  - 

4 to  12  sheet 

6s.  6d. 

JJ 

3os- 

Post-card,  white  - 

5s.  6d. 

JJ 

1 os. 

„ art 

7s.  3d. 

JJ 

13s. 

„ „ 28J  in. 

x 22J  in. 

9s.  3d. 

JJ 

17s. 

Pulp  - 

2 to  7 sheet 

4s.  9d. 

JJ 

i5s- 

Tinted  and  duplex 

4 sheet 

6s.  6d. 

JJ 

1 os. 

Ticket,  white  one 

6 to  14  sheet 

8s. 

JJ 

1 6s.  6d. 

side 

Ticket,  white  both 

>>  >> 

9s. 

JJ 

17s.  6d. 

sides 

Ticket,  tinted  one 

j>  n 

JJ 

9s.  6d. 

19s. 

side 

Window  ticket 

12  „ 16  „ 

18s.  6d. 

JJ 

3os- 

Index  boards,  20J 

20  to  52  lb.  per  gross 

6s.  6d. 

1) 

30s.  6d. 

in.  x 25J  in. 
Index  boards,  25 \ 

32  „ 52  „ 

10s.  6d. 

30s.  6d. 

in.  x 30J  in. 

142 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


Browns  and  Wrappings 


Name  of  Paper. 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Area  in  Square 
Inches. 

Weights  Equivalent 
to  Demy  10  lb., 
480  sheets. 

Small  hand 

20 

x T5 

3°° 

7i 

Lumberhand  - 

22\ 

x 172 

363! 

10 

Kent  cap 

21 

x 18 

378 

9i 

Small  cap 

25 

x 17 

425 

1 1 

Bag  cap  - 

24 

X 19I 

468 

12 

Havon  cap 

26 

X 21 

546 

14 

Double  small  hand  - 

29 

X 20 

580 

15 

,,  crown - 

3° 

X 20 

600 

15 

t Imperial  - 

29 

X 2 2 2 

652i 

17 

1 Elephant 

32 

x 24 

768 

!9 

Double  small  cap  - 

34 

x 25 

850 

22 

bag  cap 

39 

x 24 

944 

24 

Quad  small  hand 

40 

X 3° 

1,200 

31 

Double  imperial 

45 

x 29 

B3°5 

33 

„ elephant 

46 

X 31 

1,426 

37 

Casing  - 

46 

X 36 

1,656 

42 

| 

Extremes  of  Weights  and  Prices 


Equivalent 

Name  of  Paper. 

Weights  in 
Demy,  480 

Prices  per  Cwt. 

Usual  Sizes. 

sheets. 

Browns  - 

18-48 

7s.  6d.  to  2 I S. 

Various 

Drapers’  caps  - 

6-10 

i is.  6d.  ,,  26s. 

Double  crown 

Krafts  - 

I I-42 

I2S.  tO  I9S. 

M.G.  caps 

7.18 

I5S.  „ 2 I S. 

Double  crown 
and  quad  crown 

Sealings,  M.G.,  un- 

12-24 

16s.  „ 25s. 

Various 

glazed,  and  coloured 
Rope  browns  - 

18-54 

IIS.  ,,  21s. 

Various 

TABLES  OF  SIZES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  PRICES  143 


Millboards 

Thicknesses  and  Sizes 


Description. 

Thickness. 

1 

6 

1 

7 

I 

8 

1 

8x 

1 

8xx 

1 

10 

No.  of  Dozens 
in  Bundles. 

Size. 

6 

6 

6 

5 

4 

3 

Approximate  Weight  of 
Bundles  in  Lbs. 

Pott  - 

P 

l7k  x l4i 

28 

38 

48 

54 

58 

56 

Foolscap  - 

FC 

X 

00 

31 

42 

52 

59 

64 

61 

Crown 

C 

20  X l6£ 

37 

52 

63 

72 

77 

75 

Small  half  royal 

SHR 

20|  X 13 

30 

41 

52 

58 

62 

60 

Large  ,, 

LHR 

21  X I4 

33 

45 

58 

64 

70 

6 7 

Short 

S 

21  X 17 

40 

55 

69 

78 

84 

82 

No.  of  Dozens 
in  Bundles. 

6 

! 6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

Small  half  imperial  - 

SHI 

22 1 X 15 

38 

52 

54 

63 

60 

5i 

Half  imperial 

HI 

23i x 

44 

60 

63 

70 

69 

59 

Middle  or  small  demy 

M 

22^  X l8^ 

48 

64 

68 

74 

74 

62 

Large  middle  or  large  demy 
LM 

23? x i8i 

50 

68 

72 

78 

78 

67 

Large  or  medium 

L 

24  x 19 

52 

70 

74 

80 

81 

70 

Small  whole  royal 

SR 

2Six  I9J 

57 

80 

81 

88 

88 

76 

No.  of  Dozens 
in  Bundles. 

6 

6 

4 

3 

2 

2 

Large  whole  royal 

LR 

26| X 20f 

63 

S7 

75 

73 

66 

84 

Extra  royal 

ER 

282  X 2l| 

69 

95 

80 

81 

72 

93 

No.  of  Dozens 
in  Bundles. 

6 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

Whole  imperial  - 

I 

32  X 22^ 

82 

74 

72 

63 



85 

no 

Only  those  sizes  in  general  use  are  given. 


Equivalent  Weights  of  Papers  of  Various  Sizes  based  on  the  Weight  of  Demy, 

22\  in.  x 17J  in. 


n n 00 

COvO  00  00  VO 00 

H CM  LOVO 

0 co 

LO 

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tNOO 

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Tf  co  ov 

VOVO  H Mvo  N 

H HH  00  Tf 

O Cl 

vO 

tN  Ov 

TtvO 

CM 

H CO  CO 

vo  tNOO  06  00  dv 

o’  h ci  cd 

Tf  id 

vo 

Cn  tN 

O HH 

H M HH  HH  HH  HH 

CM  Cl  (M  CM 

CM  Cl 

Cl 

Cl  Ct 

CO  CO 

N H N 

TfOO  VO  vo  O co 

COvO  LO  H 

O co 

co 

tN  rr 

CO  T 

CM 

Tf  Cl  00 

Cl  H VO  IN  HH  HH 

*4“  co  Ov  lo 

q hh 

Tf 

Ov  O 

N 

d ci  ci 

VOVO  vd  vo  IN  00 

06  dv  d h 

ci  cd 

Tf 

tO  IT) 

tN  <dv 

H H H 

H H HH  H M H 

H H ci  Cl 

Cl  Cl 

Cl 

CJ  CJ 

Cl  Cl 

H O LO 

CO  H VO  ^ Tt-00 

vO  O 4 lo 
CnvO  0 LO 

O Cl 

0 

VO  HH 

ov  O 

O 

to  H VO 

CO  NH  N von- 

0 0 

Cl 

H CO 

cq  Tf 

CM 

OH  H 

00  Tf  10  id  vdvd 

vd  in  dv  dv 

d h 

ci 

cd  cd 

idvd 

H H 

H W H H HH  H 

M H H M 

Cl  Cl 

Cl 

Cl  Cl 

Cl  Cl 

Cn  Ov  Ov 

Cn  Tf  CO  H OV  CO 

00  Tf  Tf  ov 

O Cl 

00 

Tt-CO 

LOVO 

00 

vo  Ov  Tf 

-1-  Cl  vo  IN  ovoo 

ora  h 10 

q ov 

Ov 

00  ov 

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00  Ov  O 

ci  co  co  cd  cd  4 

id  LO  IN  IN 

cd  00 

d> 

d o' 

ci  cd 

H 

HH  HH  HH  HH  HH  HH 

H H H W 

H H 

H 

Cl  Cl 

Cl  Cl 

H 00  01 

00  IN  CM  OV  CO  Ov 
O IN  M H 14-  HH 

O CO  CO  Tf 

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h h ci  of  ci  co 

cd  -4-  id  id 

vd  vd 

tN 

00  00 

d 

„ H H H HH  HH 

H H H H 

H HH 

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H M 

Cl  Cl 

vd  cn  10 

OOO  IN  00  Tf 
CN  COVO  VO  00  lo 

CO  Cl  cooo 

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Tf 

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VO  IN  H 

tN  CO  COVO 

O IN 

to 

Cl  CO 

tN  Tf 

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vd  Cnoo' 

ov  0 0 d d h 

m ci  cd  cd 

■4-  Tt- 

to 

vd  vd 

tNOO 

H M H H H 

H H H H 

M H 

H 

H H 

H HH 

H VO  Ov 

M co  Ov  Tf  CJ  Ov 

LOVO  CM  CO 

O H 

(M 

Ovoo 

CO  Tf 

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CnvO  Ov 

COOO  O H CO 00 

0 L04N 

0 vq 

CO 

00  qv 

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w 

LOVO  VO 

00  00  dv  d>  d»  dv 

d d h h 

ci  ci 

co 

cd  cd 

id  id 

HH  M HH  HH 

M HH 

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HH  HH 

vO  VO  CO 

COVO  CO  Cl  N 

00  0 Cl  00 

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0 

00  vo 

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vO  N tv  tv  IN  00* 

06  00'  dv  dv 

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ci  cd 

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« 0 « 

Cl  VO  00  00  Ov  "4- 

10  Ov  LOOO 

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dv  dv 

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to  to'sd  vo  vd  vo 

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cd  cd  cd  cd  cd  Tf 

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id  id 

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ci  ci  ci  ci  ci  ci 

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cd  cd 

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cd  cd 

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VO  H Cn 

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0 0 

CM 

(M  CO 

Tf  Tf 

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Ov  H H 

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VO  IN  Ov  OV 

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CO  co 

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H M 

« H H H H H 

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ci  ci 

ci 

ci  ci 

ci  ci 

00  vo  00 

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Tt-00  LOOO 

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Tf  to  U-) 

VO  IN  IN  IN  IN  00 

00  00  Ov  Ov 

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H H 

CJ  co 

H H 

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HH  H 

H HH 

H<N 

TfOO  Ov 

LO  IN  00  00  OV  H 

CM  Tt-00  ov 

Tt-  Tt-  -t-  Tt- 

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00  00 

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Cl  Cl  Cl 

co  co  co  co  co  4- 

10  10 

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to  to 

vO  vO 

Hmhhhci 

MWM4h|ci  hUshW 

H|CM<N  rH|CI 

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XXX 

X X X X X X 

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X X 

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w g 

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LO  tN 

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H H H CM  CM  Cl 

Cl  CM  Cl  CM 

Cl  Cl 

Cl 

CM  Cl 

Cl  (M 

Size  of  Paper. 

Pott  - 

Foolscap , writing 
Foolscap,  print- 

mg 

Pinched  post  - 
Post,  writing  - 
Post,  printing  - 
Crown 

Demy,  writing  - 
Foolscap,  sheet- 
and-a-half 

Copy 

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to  to 

144 


Equivalent  Weights  of  Papers  of  Various  Sizes  based  on  the  Weight  of  Demy,  22J  in.  xi7|  in. 


A, 


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To  obtain  equivalent  weights  of  heavier  papers,  take  the  column  which  is  a multiple  of  the  weight,  and  multiply,  eKg,,  72  lb.  demy,  equivalent  in  atlas  required  ; 
24  lb.  demy=53.88  ; 72  = 53.88  x 3 = 161.64  = 162  lb.  Or  take  the  unit  column  from  table,  multiply  and  add,  e.g,  demy  65  lb.,  equivalent  weight  required  in  super- 
royal printing  ; 6 lb.  demy  = 8. 59- super-royal.  . '.  60  lb.  =85.9  ; 5 lb.  =7. 16=93.06=93  lb.  super-royal.  The  table  may,  of  course,  be  used  to  obtain  all  equivalents, 
such  as  imperial,  40  lb.  ; required  weight  of  demy  = 24  lb.  demy.  The  nearest  whole  number  should  be  taken,  except  when  ordering  regular  stock  weights. 


PROBLEMS  IN  COST,  WEIGHT,  AND 
QUANTITIES  OF  PAPER 

To  find  the  Cost  of  Paper.— T he  methods  of  calculation 
of  cost  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  sheets  to  the  ream. 
If  packed  in  480’s,  and  the  quantity  is  stated  in  reams,  quires, 
and  sheets,  the  cost  is  obtained  very  easily.  Paper  at  j£i 
per  ream  is  is.  per  quire,  Jd.  per  sheet.  Take  no  reams, 
17  quires,  12  sheets,  at  7s.  6d.  per  ream.  At  jQi  per  ream 

this  equals  ^110.  17s.  6d.,  and  at  7s.  6d.  this  comes  to  f of 

that  sum  = ^4i.  6s.  7d. ; or  reckoned  at  110J  reams  at 
7s.  6d.,  the  same  figures  are  obtained.  When  reams  contain- 
ing a larger  number  of  sheets  are  concerned,  the  calculation  is 
made  on  the  number  of  reams  plus  the  fraction  of  the  ream. 

Prices  and  Weights  of  Boards. — To  obtain  the 
price  per  480  when  the  price  per  gross  is  given,  multiply 
the  figure  by  13°.  Per  500  is  taken  as  3|-  times  the  price 

per  gross.  When  the  price  is  given  per  480,  the  price  per 

gross  is  jo  of  that  amount.  If  the  price  is  given  as  per 
500,  the  gross  will  cost  f-  of  that  amount.  Weights  are 
calculated  on  the  same  basis. 

To  Calculate  the  Weight  of  a Paper  from  the  Size 
and  Weight  of  another  Paper. — A table  of  equivalent 
weights  papers  of  regular  sizes  based  on  demy  of  certain  weights 
is  given  on  pages  144-45.  To  find  the  weight  of  other  sizes, 
multiply  the  weight  of  the  ream  in  pounds  by  the  area  of  the 
new  size  in  inches,  and  divide  by  the  area  of  the  size,  the 
weight  of  which  is  known. 

Example.  — The  weight  of  large  post  is  required 
equivalent  to  double  foolscap  30  lb. 

30  x 2 1 x 16A  i . 

^ £ = 2 2fy=  2 3 lb.  large  post. 

If  the  table  of  equivalent  weights  be  examined,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  area  of  large  post  is  346^  square  inches,  and 

146 


PROBLEMS  IN  COST,  WEIGHT,  ETC.,  OF  PAPER  1 47 


that  of  double  foolscap  459  square  inches.  For  approximate 
purposes  these  may  be  taken  as  350  and  460,  and  this  shows 
large  post  to  be  practically  three-quarters  of  the  area  of 
double  foolscap.  Other  instances  may  be  cited : demy 
3 93 1 square  inches,  if  taken  as  400,  renders  royal  as  one-fourth 
extra,  and  double  crown  one-half  above  the  demy  weights. 
These  figures  are  useful  for  quick  calculation,  but  the  first 
method  is  more  exact  and  should  be  generally  adopted. 


To  find  the  Number  of  Sheets  which  a Reel  of 
Paper  will  Produce. — Weigh  the  reel  and  deduct  the  weight 
of  the  core  or  centre.  Cut  a piece  the  full  size  of  the  sheet, 
but  if  a trim  is  allowed,  the  sheet  cut  should  be  untrimmed 
size.  Weigh  the  sheet  on  the  sheet  scale,  read  the  weight  in 
500’s,  and  divide  the  weight  given  into  the  net  weight  of  the 
reel,  and  multiply  the  result  by  500,  this  giving  the  number 
of  sheets  which  will  be  produced. 

Example.- — Reel  is  50  inches  wide,  weighs  740  lb.  ; the 
centre  is  10  lb.  in  weight ; to  be  cut  to  sheet  25  by  20  inches 
Sheet  25  by  20  inches  = 25  lb.  per  500. 

740  — 10=  730  lb.  4-  25  x 500=  14,600  sheets. 

Alternatively  a square  may  be  cut  by  the  demy  template, 
weighed  on  the  demy  scale,  the  weight  of  the  sheet  equivalent 
to  the  demy  weight  calculated  or  obtained  from  table,  and 
the  number  of  sheets  obtained  as  in  above  example. 

Example,— Reel  is  48  Inches  wide,  weighs  640  lb.  with 
4 lb.  centre  ; to  be  cut  to  24  by  36  inches  ; demy  = 21  lb.  per 
500  sheets. 

r 636  x 500  x 17!  x 22A-  , , 

640-4=  -4 4 a = 6,901  sheets. 

24  x 36  x 21 


To  find  the  Number  of  Copies  of  a Book  that  may- 
be Obtained  from  a Given  Quantity  of  Paper. — A 

publisher  sends  in  twenty-seven  perfect  reams  of  quad  crown  for 
a crown  octavo  work  of  216  pages.  How  many  copies  will 
be  produced?  A sheet  of  crown  octavo  = 16  pages,  therefore 
quad  crown  = 64  pages. 


27  x 5004-  — = 
64 


2 16  _ 27  x 500  X 64 


216 


4,000  copies. 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


148 


To  find  the  Quantity  of  Paper  required  for  an 
Edition  of  a Book  of  a Given  Size. — An  edition  of  a book 
of  400  pages  demy  octavo,  6,500  pages,  is  required.  What 
quantity  of  double  demy  should  be  issued  in  perfect  reams  ? 
A sheet  of  double  demy  will  contain  3 2 pages ; a ream  will 
produce  500  copies. 

Therefore,  ^’5°°  x 4gg  _ 1§2\  reams. 

32  x 500 

Or,  4004-32  = 12  J sheets  per  copy;  6,500=  13  reams; 

13  x 12J  = 162J  reams. 

To  Calculate  the  Weight  of  a Ream  Containing  a 
Larger  or  Smaller  Number  of  Sheets.— Multiply  the 
weight  by  the  factor  given  below,  or  else  add  or  subtract  the 
fraction  representing  the  difference  in  the  number  of  sheets. 


Table  of  Factors 


Table  of 

Factors. 

Table  of 

Fractions.1 

To  convert  to 

4S0 

500 

5°4 

516 

480 

500 

5°4 

516 

480 

1.042 

1.05 

i-o75 

+ 2?4 

+ tV 

+ TTT 

500 

.96 

1. 01 

1.032 

1 

~~  tt 

+ ITT 

+ TTo 

504 

•95 

.992 

1.022 

~ TT 

_ 1 
TIT'S 

+ 1T 

516 

•93 

.969 

•9  77 

3 

“ T7T 

4 

” TTT 

1 

“ TS 

1 Add  or  subtract  the  fraction  of  the  weight  of  the  ream  as  shown. 


PAPER  TRADE  CUSTOMS 


149 


PAPER  TRADE  CUSTOMS 

The  following  are  the  recognised  customs  of  the  trade  relative 
to  papermaking,  provided  that  no  agreement  to  the  contrary  has 
been  made  at  the  time  of  the  order  between  the  vendor  and 
the  purchaser. 

SALE 

Paper  is  sold  either  at  a price  per  ream,  based  upon  its 
nominal  weight,  or  at  the  actual  weight  by  the  pound,  packed 
in  reams  or  in  reels.  Wrapping  paper  is  sold  at  scale  weight. 

MACHINE-MADE  PAPERS 

1.  A ream  of  paper,  unless  otherwise  specified,  contains 
480  sheets. 

2.  A “perfect”  ream  for  printing  papers  contains  516 
sheets. 

3.  A ream  of  envelope  paper  contains  504  sheets. 

4.  A ream  of  news  contains  500  sheets. 

5.  An  “insides”  ream  contains  480  sheets  all  “insides,” 
i.e.,  20  good  or  inside  quires  of  24  sheets. 

6.  A “mill”  ream  contains  480  sheets,  and  consists  of 
18  “good”  or  “inside”  quires  of  24  sheets  each,  and  2 
“ outsides  ” quires  of  24  sheets  each. 

7.  Reams  are  classed  as  “good,”  “retree,”  and  “out- 
sides.” The  price  of  “retree”  is  10  per  cent.,  and  of 
“outsides”  20  per  cent,  lower  than  that  of  “good.” 

HAND-MADE  PAPERS 

8.  A “mill”  ream,  “good”  or  “retree,”  contains  472 
sheets,  and  consists  of  18  “insides  ” quires  of  24  sheets  each, 
and  two  “outsides”  quires  of  20  sheets  each. 

9.  An  “insides”  ream,  “good  ” or  “retree,”  contains  480 
sheets,  and  consists  of  20  “insides”  quires  of  24  sheets  each. 

In  all  cases  the  “ outsides  ” quires  are  placed  one  at  the 
top  and  one  at  the  bottom  of  the  ream. 

VARIATIONS  IN  WEIGHT1 

1.  In  printings,  writings,  etc.,  the  average  variation  in 
substance  of  any  ream  must  not  exceed  4 per  cent.,  either 
above  or  below  the  ordered  substance. 

In  greys,  caps,  manillas,  browns,  coloured  printings,  etc., 

1 Not  applicable  to  hand-made  paper. 


i5o 


PAPER  AND  ITS  USES 


the  average  variation  in  substance  of  any  ream  must  not  ex- 
ceed 5 per  cent,  either  above  or  below  the  ordered  substance. 

2.  In  news,  printings,  writings,  etc.,  the  average  variation 
in  substance  of  any  reel  must  not  exceed  5 per  cent,  above 
or  below  the  ordered  substance. 

In  the  case  of  paper  on  reels,  claims  for  short  length 
can  only  be  made  when  the  shortage  exceeds  5 per  cent.,  and 
then  only  for  the  amount  of  any  excess  over  and  above  such  5 
per  cent.,  unless  special  arrangements  to  the  contrary  are  made. 

In  greys,  caps,  manillas,  browns,  coloured  printings,  etc., 
the  average  variation  in  substance  of  any  reel  must  not 
exceed  6 per  cent,  above  or  below  the  ordered  substance. 

3.  But  for  all  papers  of  substance  under  6 lb.  demy 
(I7i  by  2 2\  inches),  and  above  50  lb.  demy,  the  actual 
weight  may  vary  8 per  cent,  either  over  or  under. 

4.  Payment  for  paper  in  reels,  according  to  the  printed 
or  manufactured  results,  cannot  be  claimed  by  the  purchaser. 

VARIATIONS  IN  MEASUREMENTS  1 

1.  The  variation  in  measurement  of  paper  in  reams  must 
not  exceed  J per  cent.,  either  above  or  below  the  ordered 
measurement,  but  in  no  case  shall  the  margin  of  variation 
exceed  \ inch  or  be  less  than  inch. 

2.  The  width  of  paper  in  reels  must  not  vary  more  than 
J per  cent. 

SPECIAL  MAKINGS 

1.  For  makings  of  special  weight,  size,  tint,  watermark,  etc., 
not  having  a regular  sale  in  the  market,  the  buyer  is  to  take 
at  full  price  any  excess  not  exceeding  to  per  cent,  above  the 
quantity  ordered,  including  a reasonable  proportion  of  “ retree.” 

2.  Where  a maximum  quantity  is  stipulated  for  when 
ordering,  the  order  is  considered  duly  executed  if  it  amounts 
to  not  less  than  90  per  cent,  of  the  stipulated  quantity. 

MATERIALS 

i.  Unless  otherwise  expressly  stipulated  in  the  order,  the 
maker  is  free  as  to  what  material  he  shall  use. 

WRAPPING  UP 

The  weight  of  necessary  wrappers  and  string  for  reams  and 
reels  is  to  be  included  in  the  chargeable  weight  of  the  paper. 

1 Not  applicable  to  hand-made  paper. 


PAPER  TRADE  CUSTOMS 


>5* 


% MODE  OF  PAYMENT 

The  customary  terms  of  payment  are : — A monthly 
account  to  run  from  the  20th  of  one  month  to  the  19th  of 
the  next,  payable  during  the  succeeding  month ; thus  goods 
invoiced  from  the  20th  January  to  the  19th  February  shall 
be  payable  during  March. 

RETURNED  EMPTIES 

Carriage  on  returned  empty  frames,  centres,  boards,  boxes, 
packing-cases,  etc.,  is  payable  by  the  customer  returning  the 
same,  unless  special  arrangements  to  the  contrary  are  made. 

EXCESS  CARRIAGE 

The  excess  carriage  charged  by  the  railway  companies  on 
smalls  shall  be  paid  by  the  purchaser. 

MARKING  REAMS 

The  actual  weight  ordered  shall  be  marked  on  each  ream 
at  the  mill. 

LIMIT  OF  TIME 

The  limit  of  time  for  a mill  to  hold  stock  to  order  of  the 
purchaser  shall  be  six  months  from  the  date  when  the  paper 
is  advised  as  ready  for  delivery,  such  date  not  being  earlier 
than  that  specified  on  the  order,  after  which  it  shall  be 
invoiced,  and  shall  therefrom  become  the  property  of  the 
purchaser,  and  remain  at  his  sole  risk  and  expense,  and  shall 
be  paid  for  within  thirty  days  of  invoice. 

DANDIES  AND  MOULDS 

In  all  cases  the  purchaser  shall  pay  for  the  dandy  or 
moulds  forthwith,  but  the  maker  shall  allow  an  extra 
2 1 per  cent,  off  the  invoice  for  each  delivery  of  paper  made 
from  such  dandy  until  the  cost  of  same  is  extinguished,  after 
which  it  shall  become  the  property  of  the  maker.  If  after 
an  interval  of  three  years  no  further  order  has  been  received, 
the  maker  shall  be  at  liberty  to  take  out  the  watermark  and 
make  use  of  the  frame  as  his  property  after  giving  thirty  days’ 
notice,  provided  nevertheless  that  the  purchaser  shall  have 
the  right  of  retaining  the  dandy  or  moulds  by  refunding  one- 
half  of  the  extra  discount  of  2 b percent,  allowed  in  respect 
of  the  cost. 


CITY  AND  GUILDS  OF  LONDON  INSTITUTE 
EXAMINATIONS 


TYPOGRAPHY  AND  LITHOGRAPHY 
Extracts  from  Syllabus  as  regards  Paper 

TYPOGRAPHY 
Press  and  Machine. — Grade  I 

Sizes,  and  subdivisions  of  papers  and  cards ; number  of 
sheets  in  quires  and  reams ; easy  questions  on  the  various 
grades  of  paper. 

Composing. — Grade  II 

Hand-  and  machine-made  ; qualities  and  weights,  equivalent 
weights ; sizes  and  subdivisions  of  printings,  writings,  and 
account  book  papers ; sizes  and  subdivisions  of  cards. 

Press  and  Machine. — Grade  II 

Various  sizes,  weights,  and  subdivisions;  differences  between 
machine-  and  hand-made  ; coated  and  super-calendered  ; effect 
of  heat  and  damp  upon ; avoidance  of  waste  from  dirt  and 
careless  handling. 

Final 

Papers  and  Boards. — The  manufacture  of  paper.  The 
paper-making  machine ; fibre-yielding  material ; warehouse 
tests  for  the  various  celluloses ; soft-,  half-,  tub-,  and  engine- 
sizing ; china  clay,  its  uses  and  how  to  determine  proportion. 

Various  classes  of  paper  (hand-made,  mould-made,  and 
machine-made).  Printings,  coated  papers,  writings,  banks  and 
loans,  plate,  drawings,  account  books,  cover  papers,  blottings, 
vegetable  parchments,  imitation  parchments,  manillas,  “safety” 
cheque  papers,  wrapping  papers,  gummed  papers. 

Judging  Papers.— How  to  judge  the  quality  of  various  classes 
of  papers  and  their  suitability  for  the  purposes  to  which  they 

!52 


CITY  AND  GUILDS  OF  LONDON  EXAMINATIONS  1 53 

are  to  be  put.  Bulk,  handling,  and  “look-through,”  strength, 
tear  (straight  and  across),  length  of  fibre.  British  and  foreign 
makes  and  how  to  detect.  The  right  and  wrong  sides. 

Defects  in  Paper. — Cockling,  and  creasing,  stretching, 
lifting,  fluffing,  the  mill  edge,  spots,  air-bubbles,  foreign 
substances,  electricity  in  paper. 

Technical  terms  used  by  papermakers  and  merchants. — 
Insides,  outsides,  retree,  job,  mill  job,  overmake,  etc. 

Sizes  and  Weights  of  Paper. — Standard  sizes  of  the 
various  classes.  Standard  weights.  Equivalent  weights  of 
standard  and  odd  sizes,  and  of  reams  consisting  of  480,  504, 
or  516  sheets.  Reams  to  the  reel. 

Watermarks  and  mill  numbers. 

Stocking  of  Paper. — What  classes  to  select  for  stocking. 
Racks,  for  stock.  The  care  of  stock,  samples,  oddments,  and 
useful  offcuts.  Tying  up  and  marking  reams.  The  effect  of 
light,  temperature,  chemical  fumes,  damp  and  dust  on  the 
various  classes  of  paper.  Stock-keeping  systems  and  books. 

Boards. — Bristol,  paste,  pulp,  wood-pulp,  art  and  tinted, 
millboards  and  strawboards.  Standard  sizes ; subdivisions 
and  standard  thicknesses.  Boards  to  the  cwt. 

Market  prices  and  terms  for  stock  papers  and  makings. 

LITHOGRAPHY 
Grade  I 

Machine-made  uncoated  printing  papers : their  nature  and 
qualities ; dimensions  of  the  more  common  printing  papers, 
tinted  and  white,  wove  and  laid,  sized  and  unsized. 

Grade  II 

Hand-  and  machine-made  ; tinted  ; enamels  (single  and 
duplex  coated) ; plain  and  glazed  cards,  their  nature,  qualities, 
and  sizes.  Paper  creasing  and  its  remedies. 

Final 

Tests  for  printing  properties  | papers  suitable  for  particular 
classes  of  work. 


BOOKS  AND  PERIODICALS 


“C.B.S.  Standard  Units  and  Standard  Paper  Tests,”  Cross, 
Bevan,  Beadle,  and  Sindall.  E.  & F.  N.  Spon, 
Ltd.  2s.  6d.  net. 

“Chapters  on  Paper  Making,”  Vols.  I.-V.,  Beadle.  Crosby 
Lockwood  & Son.  5s.  net  each  volume. 

“ Dyeing  of  Paper  Pulp,”  Erfurt.  Scott,  Greenwood,  & 
Son.  15s.  net. 

“ Manufacture  of  Paper,”  Sindall.  Constable  & Co.,  Ltd.  6s.  net. 
“ Outlines  of  Stationery  Testing,”  Bromley.  C.  Griffin  & 
Co.,  Ltd.  2s.  6d.  net. 

“ Paper  Makers’ Pocket  Book,”  Beveridge.  J.  Gibson.  12s.  6d. 
“ Paper  Making,”  Clapperton.  Crosby  Lockwood  & Son.  5s.  net. 
“ Paper  Making,”  Watt.  Crosby  Lockwood  & Son.  7s.  6d. 

“ Paper  Mill  Chemist,”  Stevens.  Scott,  Greenwood,  & Son. 
7s.  6d.  net. 

“ Paper  Technology, ’’Sindall.  C.  Griffin  & Co.,  Ltd.  12s.  6d.  net. 
“Text-Book  of  Paper  Making,”  Cross,  Bevan,  and  Briggs. 

E.  & F.  N.  Spon,  Ltd.  12s.  6d.  net. 

“Treatise  on  Paper  Making,”  Hofmann.  Sampson  Low, 
Marston,  & Co.,  Ltd.  6 parts,  5s.  net  each. 

“Treatment  of  Paper  for  Special  Purposes,”  Andes.  Scott, 
Greenwood,  & Son.  6s.  net. 

“What  a Stationer  ought  to  know  about  Paper,”  Maddox. 

J.  Whitaker  & Sons,  Ltd.  is.  net. 

“ Wood  Pulp,”  Cross,  Bevan,  and  Sindall.  Constable  & Co., 
Ltd.  6s.  net. 


British  Empire  Paper,  Stationery  and  Printing  Trades  Journal. 
Monthly,  6d. 

Paper  Maker  and  British  Paper  Trades  Journal.  Monthly,  is. 
Paper  Makers ’ Monthly  Journal.  Monthly,  6d. 

Paper  Trades  Review.  Weekly,  6d. 

Paper  Making.  Monthly,  6d. 

*54 


INDEX 


Note.  — The  Alphabetical  List  of  Papers , pages  113-34,  is  not  included 
in  the  Index. 


Absorbent  papers,  testing,  104 
Accounts,  stock  paper,  93 
Advantages  of  scientific  conditions 
in  machine  rooms,  69 
Air-dried  browns,  56 
Alphabetical  list  of  papers,  113-34 
Alum  in  paper,  6 

Amount  of  loading  permissible  in 
paper,  20,  64 

Analysis  of  mixture  of  fibres,  no 
Aniline  sulphate  solution,  106 
Animal  sizing,  6 
Apparatus  for  paper  testing,  112 
Art  paper,  47 

— — decomposition  of  glue  in,  76 
durability  of,  65 

manufacture  of,  48 

picking  or  lifting  of,  73 

testing,  73 

Ashcroft  paper-testing  machine,  100 
Ash  of  papers,  105 

Bamboo,  3 

— fibres,  microscopical  examination 

of,  no 

— testing  for,  107 
Bank  notes,  38,  39 

— paper,  39 
Beating  engine,  9 

— rags,  n 

— wood  pulp,  13 
Bleaching  powder,  1 1 

— pulp,  1 1 

Blotting  papers,  manufacture  of,  51 

enamelled,  52 

Board  machine,  36 
Boards,  box,  50 

— coated,  50 

— table  of  prices  of,  14 1 

Boards,  to  find  prices  and  weights, 
146 


Boiling  rags,  9 

Bond  papers,  39 

Books  and  periodicals,  154 

— mixture  of  shades  of  papers  in, 

81 

— quantity  of  paper  required  for, 

148 

Bound  books,  direction  of  paper 
for,  78 

Box  boards,  50 

manufacture  of,  36 

Bristol  boards,  manufacture  of,  36 
Broke,  29 

Browns,  air-dried,  56 

— and  wrappings,  table  of  sizes, 

weights,  and  prices,  142 

— cylinder-dried,  56 
Bursting  strain,  100 

Cardboards,  59 

— cockling  of,  72 

— table  of  prices  of,  14 1 

Card  index  boards,  characteristics 
of,  58 

Cards,  table  of  sizes  and  methods 
of  cutting,  140 

— index,  sizes  of,  and  methods  of 

cutting,  140 
Care  of  paper,  90 
Cartridge  papers,  41 

table  of  weights  and  prices, 

139 

Carriage  panels,  manufacture  of,  36 
Carrington  paper-testing  machine, 
99 

Cellulose,  2 

— in  fibres,  61 

Change  of  colour  of  papers,  77 
Characteristics  of  card  index  boards, 
58 

ledger  papers,  39 


J55 


156  INDEX 


Characteristics  of  printing  papers, 
43 

Chemical  wood,  3,  13 

microscopical  examination  of, 

no 

Cheque  papers,  40 
China  clay,  6 

as  loading,  20 

Choosing  paper  to  suit  job,  80 
Chromo  boards,  59 

— papers,  49 

City  and  Guilds  Syllabus  for  typo- 
graphy and  lithography,  152-53 
Classification  of  fibres,  64 
Cloth-lined  cards,  coloured,  50 
Coated  boards,  50 

— papers,  48 

ink  for,  75 

Cockling  of  cardboards,  72 
Coloured  cloth-lined  cards,  50 

— [ papers,  difference  in  shade  of 
two  sides,  85 

— papers  for  pasting,  104 

— printings,  45 

Colouring  matter  in  papers,  7,  103 
fastness  to  light  of,  103 

— pulp,  20 
Common  printings,  44 
Comparison  between  hand-,  mould-, 

and  machine-made  papers,  87 

— of  strength  by  tearing,  88 
Condition  of  knives  of  cutting- 

machines,  78 
Constituents  of  paper,  6 
Copying  papers,  53 
— ■ — testing,  105 
Cost  of  paper,  to  find,  146 
Cotton,  cellulose  in,  2 

— fibres,  4,  61 

— microscopical  examination  of, 

108 

Couching,  16 
Couch  rolls,  23 
Cover  papers,  53 

— — embossed,  54 

pamphlet,  54 

Crayon  papers,  42 

Cutting  machine,  condition  of 
knives,  78 

— watermarked  papers,  79 
Cutting  machine  webs  into  sheets, 

32 

Cylinder-dried  browns,  56 
Cylinder  papermaking  machine,  25 


Dandy  rolls,  22 

effect  of,  23 

laid,  23 

spiral  laid,  23 

wove,  23 

Deckle,  15 

— straps,  21 

Decomposition  of  gelatine  sizing, 
76 

— of  glue  in  art  paper,  76 
Defects  in  paper,  66 
Deterioration  of  mechanical  wood 

papers,  65 

— of  paper,  63 

Difference  in  shade  of  two  sides  of 
coloured  papers,  85 
Direction  of  paper  for  bound  books, 
78 

Discoloration  of  paper,  63 
Distinguishing  between  hand-  and 
machine-made  papers,  85,  86 

— mould-made  papers,  87 
Drawing  papers,  41 

weights  and  prices  of,  139 

Drying  cylinders,  23 

— sized  paper,  29 

Duplex  boards,  manufacture  of,  35 
Duplicating  paper,  52 

testing,  105 

Durability  of  art  paper,  65 

— of  featherweight  paper,  45,  64 

Eddy  paper-testing  machines,  100 
Edge  runner  or  kollergang,  13 
Elasticity  of  paper,  97 
Electricity  in  paper,  74 
Embossed  cover  papers,  54 
Enamelled  papers,  49 
Engine-sized  papers,  21,  39,  41 
Envelope  papers,  32 
Equivalent  weights  of  various 
papers,  144-45 
Esparto,  3 

— cellulose  in,  2 

— fibres,  5,  62 

microscopical  examination  of, 

no 

— testing  for,  107 

— treatment  of,  1 1 
Exercise  book  covers,  55 
Expansion  of  paper,  68 

Extracts  from  City  and  Guilds 
Syllabus  for  typography  and 
lithography,  152-53 


INDEX 


5 ; 


Fastness  to  light  of  colouring 
matters,  103 

Featherweight  paper,  45,  64,  81 

durability  of,  45,  64 

Fibre  composition,  examination  of, 

106 

Fibres,  bamboo,  no 

— cellulose  in,  61 

— classification  of,  64 

— cotton,  4,  61,  108 

— esparto,  5,  62,  no 

— flax,  62 

— hemp,  4,  109 

— jute,  5,  109 

— linen,  4,  109 

— manilla,  5,  109 

— microscopical  examination  of, 

107 

— straw,  5,  109 

— wood,  5,  62,  no 
Filling,  6 

Filter  papers,  manufacture  of,  51 
Finish,  machine,  25 
Finish  of  paper,  testing,  101 
Finishing  paper,  28 
Flax  fibres,  62 
Flint  glazed  papers,  32,  49 
Fluff  from  papers,  75 
Folding  machine,  101 

tests,  101 

Fourdrinier  machine,  18 
Friction  glazing,  31 

Gummed  papers,  55 
non-curling,  55 

Halfstuff,  10,  12 
Hand-  and  machine-made  papers, 
distinguishing  between,  85,  86 
mould-made  papers,  distin- 
guishing between,  87 

—  and  machine-made  papers, 

comparison  between,  87 
Hand-made  papers,  14 

— printings,  44 
Hemp  fibres,  4,  109 

— microscopical  examination  of, 

109 

Hollander,  9 

Imitation  art  paper,  47 

loading  in,  20 

Impression  paper,  52 

Index  cards,  characteristics  of,  58 


Index  cards,  table  of  sizes  and 
methods  of  cutting,  140 

prices,  14 1 

Ink  for  coated  papers,  75 
Insides,  30,  33 
Iodine  solution,  108 
Ivory  boards,  manufacture  of,  35 

Judging  paper,  80 
Jute  fibres,  5,  109 

— microscopical  examination  of, 

109 

Kraft  papers,  56 
weights  and  prices,  142 

Laid  dandy  roll,  23 
Leather  boards,  manufacture  of,  36 
Ledger  papers,  characteristics  of,  39 
Leunig  paper-testing  machine,  98 
Letterpress  printers,  stock  papers 
for,  91 

Linen  fibres,  4,  109 

microscopical  examination  of, 

109 

Lithographers,  stock  papers  for,  93 
Litho.  papers,  46,  82 

stretching  of,  46,  71 

Loading,  6 

— amount  of,  permissible  in  print- 

ings, 26,  64 

writings,  20,  64 

present  in  imitation  art  papers, 

20 

— china  clay  as,  20 

— testing  for,  105 
Loan  papers,  39 
Loft  drying,  17 

Loss  of  strength  in  papers,  64 

Machine  finish  (M.F.),  25,  30 

— made  papers,  18 
writing  papers,  30 

—  tub  sizing,  30 

Manilla  fibres,  5,  109 

— microscopical  examination  of,  106 
Manufacture  of  art  paper,  48 

— of  blotting  paper,  51 

— of  Bristol  boards,  36 

— of  duplex  boards,  35 

— of  filter  paper,  51 

— of  ivory  boards,  35 

— of  millboards,  36 

— of  pasteboards,  36 


INDEX 


I58 


Manufacture  of  pulp  boards,  35 

— of  triplex  boards,  35 

— of  wrapping  papers,  56 
Marshall’s  paper-testing  machine,  98 
Maturing  paper,  67,  69 
Mechanical  wood  pulp,  4,  6,  13,  63, 

no 

papers,  deterioration  of,  65 

testing  for,  106 

microscopical  examination  of, 

no 

Methods  of  transporting  paper,  89 
M.G.  papers,  25 

— poster  papers,  47 
Micrometer  for  testing  thickness, 

97 

Microscope,  107 

Microscopical  analysis  of  mixture  of 
fibres,  no 

— examination  of  fibres,  107 

preparation  of  fibres  for,  107 

Middles,  36 

Mill  ream,  33 

— numbers,  25 

Millboards,  manufacture  of,  36 

— table  of  sizes  and  thicknesses, 

M3 

Mineral  matter,  6 

testing  for,  105 

Mitscherlich  pulp,  62 
Mixture  of  shades  of  paper  in  books, 
81 

Moisture  in  paper,  67 
Mould- made  paper,  17 

— printings,  44 

Moulds  for  hand-made  paper,  15 
Mullen  paper-testing  machine,  100 
Multi-copying  paper,  52 

News,  ream  of,  34 
Non-curling  gummed  paper,  55 
Note  and  letter  papers,  table  of 
sizes  of,  135 

Number  of  copies  from  given 
quantity  of  paper,  147 

Offcuts,  95 

Opacity  of  paper,  testing,  1 00 

Outsides,  33 

Oxford  India  paper,  44 

Pamphlet  cover  papers,  54 
Paper,  absorbent,  104 


Paper,  amount  of  loading  present 
in,  20 

— bamboo  in,  107,  no 

— bursting  strain  of,  100 

— care  of,  90 

— chemical  wood  in,  no 

— cockling  of,  72 

— coloured,  for  pasting,  104 

— colouring  matter  in,  7,  103 

— constituents  of,  61 

— copying,  105 

— curing  machine,  70 

— cotton  in,  108 

— defects  in,  66 

— deterioration  of,  63 

— discoloration  of,  63 

— duplicating,  105 

— elasticity  of,  97 
— - electricity  in,  74 

— envelope,  32 

— esparto  in,  107,  no 

— expansion  of,  68 

— featherweight,  64,  81 

— finish  of,  101 

— flint  glazed,  31 

— fluff  from,  75 

— for  colour  work,  82 

— for  register  work,  72 

— for  programmes,  81 

— for  varnished  work,  82 

— gummed,  55 

— hand-made,  14 

— hemp  in,  109 

— jute  in,  109 

— linen  in,  109 

— machine-made,  18 

— maturing,  67,  69 

— manilla  in,  109 

— mechanical  wood  in,  65,  105, 

no 

— M.G.,  25 

— microscopical  examination  of, 

107 

— moisture  in,  67 

— mould-made,  17 

— opacity  of,  100 

— poster,  82 

— proof,  83 

— printing  qualities  of,  in 

— quantity  required  for  books,  148 

— set-off,  83 

— sizes,  weights,  and  prices,  135 

— sorting,  33 

— squareness  of,  97 


INDEX. 


159 


Paper,  starch  in,  103 

— straw  in,  107 

— stretching  of,  7 1 

— surface  of,  101 

— tensile  strength  of,  97 

— testing,  96 

machines,  98,  99,  100 

— thickness  of,  97 

— to  calculate  weight  of,  146 

— to  find  cost  of,  146 

— transporting,  89 

— varnishable,  83 

— wavy  edges  to,  72 
Papermaking — 

— hand-made,  1 5 

— machine,  wet  end  of,  21 

— materials  for,  1 

— rags  for,  3 
Paper  testing,  96 

— ■ — apparatus  for,  1 12 

machine,  Ashcroft,  100 

Carrington,  99 

Eddy,  100 

Leunig,  98 

— Marshall’s,  98 

—  Mullen,  100 

Rehse,  100 

Southworth,  100 

Woolley,  100 

Paper  trade  customs,  149-5 1 
Papers,  alphabetical  list  of,  113-34 
Papyrus,  I 

Pasteboards,  manufacture  of,  36 
Pastings,  36 
Perfect  ream,  34 
Phloroglucine  solution,  106 
Picking  or  lifting  of  art  papers,  73 
Plate  papers,  47 

— rolling,  29 

Portmanteau  boards,  manufacture  of, 
36 

Position  and  condition  of  stock 
room,  89 

Poster  papers,  47,  82 
M.G.,  47 

Preparation  of  fibres  for  microscopi- 
cal examination,  107 
Presse-pate  machine,  12 
Pressings,  55 

Prices  and  weights  of  boards,  to  find, 
146 

— of  boards,  14 1 

— of  brown  and  wrapping  papers, 

142 


Prices  of  printing  papers,  137 

— of  writing  papers,  139 
Printing  papers,  43 

coloured,  45 

common,  44 

loading  in,  20 

permissible  in,  64 

qualities,  1 1 1 

table  of  sizes  and  weights,  136 

weights  and  prices,  137 

Programme  papers,  81 
Proofs,  paper  for,  83 
Pulp  boards,  58 
manufacture  of,  35 

Quantity  of  paper  required  for 
books,  148 

Rags,  beating,  11 

— boiling,  9 

— for  papermaking,  3,  8 

— sorting,  8 

— washing,  9,  10 

Raw  materials  for  papermaking,  1 

reduction  to  pulp,  8 

Ream,  mill,  33 

— news,  34 

— perfect,  34 

— stationers’,  34 

— wrappers,  57 
Reed  pulp,  3 

Register  work,  paper  for,  72 
Rehse  paper-testing  machine,  100 
Remedy  for  faults  in  art  papers, 

.73 

Resistance  to  wear,  testing  for,  10 1 
Retree,  29,  33 
Right  side  of  paper,  79,  83 
Rolling  printed  work,  76 
Ruling  on  various  papers,  76 

Sample  portfolio,  95 
Set-off  sheets,  83 
Sheets  in  a reel,  to  calculate,  147 
Single  cylinder  papermaking 
machine,  25 

Size  of  sheets,  checking,  97 
Sizing,  animal,  6 

— engine,  21 
testing  for,  102 

— tub,  6,  28 

testing  for,  102 

— vegetable,  6,  21 

i Slate  boards,  manufacture  of,  36 


6o 


INDEX 


Society  of  Arts  and  deterioration  of 
paper,  63 
Soda  pulp,  3 
Sorting  paper,  29 

— rags,  8 

Southworth  paper-testing  machine, 
100 

Spiral  laid  dandy  roll,  23 
Squareness,  testing  for,  97 
Starch,  testing  for,  103 
Stationers’  ream,  34 
Stock  accounts,  93 

— papers  for  letterpress  printers, 

91 

lithographers,  93 

Stock  room,  position  and  condition 
of,  89 

Stocktaking,  94 
Straw,  3,  5,  109 

— fibres,  5,  109 

— microscopical  examination  of,  109 

— testing  for,  107 

Stretch  in  litho.  paper,  46,  71 
Stretching  of  paper,  71 
Suction  boxes,  23 
Sulphate  pulp,  4 
Sulphite  pulp,  4 

Surface-coloured  enamel  papers,  49 
Surface  of  papers,  testing,  101 
Super-calendered  (S.C.)  papers,  30 
Super-calendering,  25 
“ Swift”  paper  curing  machine,  70 

Table  of  equivalent  weights,  144-4.5 

— of  prices  of  boards,  14 1 

— of  sizes  and  thicknesses  of 

millboards,  143 

of  cards,  140 

of  index  cards,  140 

— - of  note  and  letter  papers,  135 

— of  sizes,  weights,  and  prices  of 

browns  and  wrappings,  142 

printings,  136 

writings,  138 

Tearing  as  a method  of  comparing 
strength,  88 
Tensile  strength,  97 
Testing  absorbent  paper,  104 

— art  paper,  73 

— bursting  strain,  100 

— coloured  papers  for  pasting,  104 

— copying  paper,  105 

— duplicating  paper,  105 

— elasticity,  97 


Testing  fastness  of  colours,  103 

— for  bamboo  in  paper,  107,  no 

— — chemical  wood,  no 

cotton  in  paper,  108 

esparto  in  paper,  107,  no 

hemp  in  paper,  109 

jute  in  paper,  109 

linen  in  paper,  109 

loading,  105 

— manilla  in  paper,  109 

mechanical  wood,  106,  no 

mineral  matter,  105 

starch,  103 

straw  in  paper,  107,  109 

various  faults,  in 

— opacity,  100 

— printing  qualities,  1 1 1 

— resistance  to  wear,  101 

— sizing  of  papers,  102 

— squareness,  97 

— surface,  101 

— thickness  of  papers,  97 
Testing  paper,  96 
Thickness  of  sheets,  97 
Tinted  printings,  45 
Tissue  papers,  53 
Toned  printings,  45 
Torn  paper,  in 
Transporting  paper,  89 
Treatment  of  esparto,  n 

— of  rags,  9 
Triplex  boards,  59 

— manufacture  of,  35 
Tub-sizing,  28 

— r testing  for,  102 

— writing  papers,  30 
Typewriting  papers,  40 

Usual  weights  and  sizes  of  browns 
and  wrappings,  142 

printings,  136 

writings,  138 

Varnishable  paper,  83 
Varnished  work,  paper  for,  82 

Washing  rags,  9,  10 
Water  finish,  30 
Waterleaf,  17 

Watermarked  paper,  cutting,  79 
Watermarks,  15,  25 
Wavy  edges,  72 
Wearing  qualities  of  paper,  64 
Weight  of  paper,  to  calculate,  146 


INDEX 


161 


Weights  of  browns  and  wrappings, 
I42i 

— of  printings,  136 

— of  writings,  138 

Wet  end  of  paper  machine,  21 
Wildness  in  paper,  112 
Wiie  mark  in  paper,  84 
Wood  fibres,  5,  62,  1 10 

— microscopical  examination  of, 

no 

— pulp,  13 

— beating,  13 

— chemical,  3,  13,  no 

— mechanical,  3,  6,  13,  no 


Wood,  mechanical,  testing  for,  106 

— Mitscherlich,  62 

Woolley  paper  - testing  machine, 
100 

Wove  dandy  roll,  23 
Wrapping  papers,  55 

— — manufacture  of,  56 
Writing  papers,  39 
loading  in,  20,  64 

tables  of  sizes,  weights,  and 

prices,  138 

Yankee  papermaking  machine, 
25 


11 


Samples  of  Paper 


No. 

Description. 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Weight. 

Sheets  to 
Ream. 

Price 

per 

Lb. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

1 

Watermarks,  Etc. 

Section 

. — Sup/ 

died 

Lb. 

by 

Mess? 

s.  d. 

v J.  Spicer  6°  Sons , Lta 

I 

Hand-made,  cr.  Id. 

19  XI5l 

30 

480 

I 2 

All  rag 

Eltham  Court. 

2 

Mould-made,  cr.  Id. 

182 X I4f 

30 

480 

O IO 

? ? 

3 

Cream  wove,  tub- 
sized 

18  X23 

28 

480 

I O 

” ' ' ‘ 

Majesta  Super 
Strong,  5050. 

4 

Blue  laid,  tub-sized 

18  X23 

34 

480 

0 7h 

Rag,  90  °/0 ; chem.  wood,  10  °/0 

Indiana  Mill. 

5 

Cream  laid,  e.s. 

18  x 23 

25 

480 

O 3 

Esp.,  90%;  chem.  wood,  10% 

The  Effra. 

6 

Blue  wove,  e.s. 

18  x 23 

21 

480 

0 4 

O 

O 

O 

0 

0 

O 

00 

1 

Section  ia.— 

Supplied  by  Messrs  Grosvenor,  Chater,  6°  Co.,  Ltd. 

7 

Typewriting  mani- 
fold bank  - 

21  x 164 

7 

0 

00 

rj- 

I 0 

Rag,  80%;  chem.  wood,  20  °/0|  British  Oak 

Bond. 

8 

Cream  wove  bank  - 

21  x 164 

11 

500 

O 5^ 

,,  60%;  „ 4°  °L 

| 68  Quality. 

9 

Loan 

18  X23 

20 

500 

0 10 

„ 8s7o5*  » 15% 

'No.  537. 

10 

Drawing,hand-made 

30  x 22 

72 

472 

I 4 h 

All  rag 

Whatman  H.  P. 
1 (mill  ream). 

11 

Drawing,  machine- 
made 

30  X 22 

70 

480 

O 2| 

Chemical  wood 

No.  818. 

12 

Cartridge 

30  X 22 

70 

480 

O 3f 

Rag,  30%  ; chem.  wood,  70% 
Esp.,8o°/0;  chem. wood,  20%) 

1 No.  642. 

13 

Duplicating  - 

21  X l6^ 

21 

480 

O 24 

193  Mill. 

Section  2.— -Supplied  by  Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge , Ltd. 

14 

Hand-made  printing 

17^  X22| 

36 

516 

I O 

All  rag  - - - - - 

Aldwych,  H.M. 
“ 147.” 

15 

Machine  finish  print- 
ing 

i7i x 224 

20 

504 

0 2§  Esp.,30  /0;  chem.  wood, 70  /0 

16 

Sup. -cal.  printing  - 

174  X22| 

30 

480 

0 2\  Chemical  wood 

Lyceum. 

1 7 

News  printing 

174  X 22^ 

20 

500 

0 i§  Chem.  wood,  25  °/0 ; mech. 
wood,  75  °/0 

18 

Litho.  - 

l7iX22j 

24 

5*6 

0 24  Esp.,  95  %;  chem.  wood,  5°/0 

Esp.  No.  2 litho. 

19 

Plate  paper  - 

174  x 22| 

40 

516 

0 6 

Esparto  - 

Fine  Plate. 

20 

Bible  ,, 

174X224 

11 

500 

0 2§  Chemical  wood 

Aldwych  Bible. 

21 

Antique  laid  book 

174  x 224 

25 

516 

0 2§ 

Esp. , 60  °/Q ; chem.  wood,  40% 

Univ.  Ant.  laid. 

22 

,,  wove  ,, 

174  X 224 

30 

516 

0 2§ 

,,  6o°/0;  „ 40% 

Univ.  Ant.  wove 

Section  2 a. 

— Supplied  by  Messrs  J.  Dickinson  6°  Co.,  Ltd. 

23 

Chromo,  one-sided 

1 7 2 x 224 

— 

480 

— 

Esparto  - 

1 2s.  6d.  per  rm. 

24 

Art,  two-sided 

174x224 

40 

516 

0 3i 

Chem.  wood,  40°/0 ; esp.  ,6o°/0 

25 

Imitation  art 

174 x 224 

36 

516 

0 2f 

„ 20%;  ,,  80% 

26 

F eather  weight,  wove 

174x224 

20 

516 

0 24 

,,  10%;  » 90% 

27 

,,  laid 

174  x 224 

20 

516 

0 24 

,,  10%;  „ 90% 

28 

M.  G.  poster  - 

174 x 224 

20 

516 

0 24 

Chemical  wood 

Section  ; 

3. — Supplied  by  Messrs  Lepard  6°  Smiths,  Ltd. 

29 

White  tissue  - - 1 

20  x 30 

7 

480  1 

0 5 i 

J 1 

Chem.  wood,  70  % 5 straw, 

30  % 

“ 555-” 

30 

Cream  wove,  copy- 

18  X23 

6 

S°4  ' 

0 10 

Rag  (trace  of  chem.  wood)  - 

“ T.Y.” 

3i 

ing 

White  blotting 

174  x 224 

38 

480  ' 

0 4f 

All  rag  .... 

Crown. 

Section  3 a. — Supplied  by  Messrs  Spalding  6°  Hodge , Ltd. 

32  I 

Drying  royal  - - 120  x 25  | 44  | 480  |o  4^1  Rag,  8o°/0  ; chem.  wood,  20%[ 

Section  3B. — Supplied  by  Messrs  J.  Spicer  6°  Sons,  Ltd. 

33 

Vegetable  parchment : 

20  X IO  I t2  ! 
20  X 30  l8 

480  < 

d 4^1  All  rag I 

34 

Imitation  parchment  : 

480  < 

3 3| 

Chemical  wood  - - -| 

162 


No.  i. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Cream  laid,  hand-made 

19X151 

30  480 

All  rag. 

Eltham  Court. 

Messrs  J. 

Spicer  & Sons,  Ltd. 

No.  2. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Cream  laid,  mould-made 

i8| x 14I 

30  480 

All  rag. 

Messrs  J.  Spicer  & Sons,  Ltd. 


No.  3. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Cream  wove,  tub-sized 

18  x 23 

28  480 

All  rag-. 

Majesta  Super  Strong,  5050. 


Messrs  J.  Spicer  & Sons,  Ltd. 


No.  4. 


Description. 

Blue  laid,  tub-sized 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 
inches.  lb.  ream. 


Approximate  Furnish. 


18  x 23  34 


480 


Rag-,  90  % ; 

chemical  wood,  10  %. 


Indiana  Mill. 


Messrs  J.  Spicer  & Sons,  Ltd. 


No.  s. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight, 

lb. 

Sheets  in 
ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Cream  laid,  engine- 
sized 

18  x 23 

25 

480 

Esparto,  90  % ; 
chemical  wood,  10  %• 

The  Effra. 

Messrs  J.  Spicer  & Sons,  Ltd. 

Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight, 

lb. 

Sheets  in 
ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Blue  wove,  engine- 

18 x 23 

21 

480 

Esparto,  80  % ; 

sized 

chemical  wood,  20  %* 

Messrs  J.  Spicer  & Sons,  Ltd. 


No.  7. 


Description. 

Typewriting  manifold 
bank 


Size  in 
inches. 

21  x l6£ 


Weight, 

lb. 


Sheets  in 
ream. 

480 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Rag,  80  0/0 ; 
chemical  wood,  20  %. 


British  Oak  Bond. 


Messrs  Grosvknor,  Chatek,  & Co.,  Ltd. 


.oVI 


.dfiimo'i  aiBmixoTqqA 


ni  sja»sri8  ,3xigbV/  ni  3.si2 

•ffifisi  .dl  .H^donx 


; 0\°  o3  ,3J3H  8 

,\°  os  <boow  I-Bsimario 


.<itJ  ./O  y>  .M3TAHD  ^o’/.hv^.omO  rir^l/ 


.nohqitoaaO 

{.5i  x is  bIo^n£rn  sniihwsqyT 


alnscf 

[>jioH  >fi;Q  ri/nhfl 


Description. 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 
inches.  lb.  ream. 


Cream  wove  bank  21  x i6£  11  500 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Rag,  60  7o ; 
chemical  wood,  40  Vo- 


68  Quality. 


Messrs  Grosvenor,  Chatrr,  & Co.,  Ltd. 


.8  ,oW 


.rfaimuH  3jBmixoiqqA 

ni  aiaarfS  JdgisW 
tnfisi  .dl 

m axils 

.?9ibni 

.nobqinjaG 

; o\  ' Od  '<  sSL 
.o\°  oi.  rboow  isnmiao  > 

00?,  u 

£di  x is 

stolid  jvow  mj&stD 

0 T J ,.<~i  j'  * H T A H r>  HO  V H V SO  ff  D ?.'l  - • i ' -7  5 ' ■ '■ lj  P - * 


No.  9. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight. 

lb. 

Sheets  in 
ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Loan 

18x23 

20 

500 

Rag,  85  % ; 
chemical  wood,  15  °/0. 

No.  537.  Messrs  Grosvenor,  Chater,  & Co.,  Ltd. 


. 


' 


No.  io. 


Description. 

Drawing,  hand-made 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 

inches.  lb.  ream. 

30  X 22  72  472 


Approximate  Furnish. 

All  rag. 


Whatman  H.P. 


Messrs  Grosvenor,  Chater,  & Co.,  Ltd. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Drawing-,  machine- 
made 

30X22 

70  480 

Chemical  wood. 

No.  818. 


Messrs  Grosvenor,  Chater,  & Co.,  Ltd. 


No.  12. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight, 

lb. 

Sheets  in 
ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Cartridge. 

30  X 22 

70 

480 

Rag,  30  70 ; 
chemical  wood,  70  %. 

No.  642. 


Messrs  Grosvenor,  Chater,  & Co.,  Ltd. 


No.  13. 


Description. 

Duplicating. 


193  Mill. 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 
inches.  lb.  ream. 

21  X l6|  21  480 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Esparto,  80  % ; 
chemical  wood,  20  °/0. 


Messrs  Grosvenor,  Chater,  & Co.,  Ltd. 


Description. 

Printing-,  hand -made 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 
inches.  lb.  ream. 

*7$  X 22£  36  516 


Approximate  Furnish. 

All  rag. 


Aldwych,  hand-made. 


Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 


No.  15. 

Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight, 

lb. 

Sheets  in 
ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Printing,  machine  finish 

NH 

X 

to 

to 

20 

504 

Esparto,  30  % 5 
chemical  wood,  70  °/0. 

“ I47»”  Printing. 


Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 


No.  16. 


Description. 

Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in  A • . tt  • u 

inches.  lb.  ream.  Approximate  Furnish. 

Printing,  super  calendered 

17 h x 22 2 30  480  Chemical  wood. 

Lyceum,  S.C.  printing. 

Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 

No.  17. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

W1fhtl 

Sheets  in 
ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

News  printing 

HN 

8 

X 

M 

20 

500 

Chemical  wood,  25  0/o  ; 
mechanical  wood,  75  %. 

Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 

v 


l 


> 

’ A 


No.  18. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Litho 

I7i X 22£ 

24  516 

Esparto,  95  % ; 
chemical  wood,  5 °/0. 

Esparto,  No.  2 litho. 

Messrs 

Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 

No.  19. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Plate  paper 

17 h x 22J 

40  Sl6 

Esparto. 

Fine  Plate. 


Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 


_ . . Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 

Description.  inches.  lb.  ream. 

Bible  paper  vj\y>22\  ii  500 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Chemical  wood. 


Aldwych  Bible. 


Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 


_ 

os  oVf 

fteirriu'H  sJriint/oitjH  l. 

boow  UoicnorfO 

ia  rfJwR 

00? 

.i,  ^Wff 

J:I 

nt-5st?. 

.^rbcti 

ss  V1  , 

' .cioijq'  •-=><  1 

loqsq  oldiS 

.utJ  . Kxiol'1  h '/{(UrM*}  .akkfl  rfr<wMA, 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Antique  laid  book 

I7£  X 22£ 

25  516 

Esparto,  60  °/0 ; 
chemical  wood,  40  %• 

Universal  Antique,  laid. 


Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 


No.  22. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight, 

lb. 

Sheets  in 
ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Antique  wove  book 

171  X 22\ 

30 

516 

Esparto,  60  % ; 
chemical  wood,  40  %• 

Universal  Antique,  wove. 


Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 


No.  23. 

1 2s.  6d.  per  ream. 

Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Chromo,  one-sided 

I7h X 

480 

Esparto 

Messrs  J. 

Dickinson  & Co.,  Ltd. 

No.  24. 


Description. 

Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in  Approximate  Furnish, 

inches.  lb.  ream. 

Art,  two-sided 

, Esparto,  60  % 5 

17 2 x 22\  4°  5l6  chemical  wood,  40  70. 

Messrs  J.  Dickinson  & Co.,  Ltd. 


No.  25. 


Description. 

Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in  . , ~ . , 

inches.  lb  ream.  Approximate  Furnish. 

Imitation  Art 

*»***  36  5x6  tJsSfZ&'ii;, 

Messrs  J.  Dickinson  & Co.,  Ltd. 


No.  26. 


Description. 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 
inches.  lb.  ream. 


Approximate  Furnish. 


Featherweight,  wove  17$  x 22\  20 


5i6 


Esparto,  90  % 5 
chemical  wood,  10  %• 


Messrs  J.  Dickinson  & Co.,  Ltd. 


No.  27. 


Descrmtion  Size  ‘n  Weight,  Sheets  in  A . „ . , 

description.  inches.  lb.  ream.  Approximate  Furnish. 


Featherweight,  laid  17^x22^  20 

qi6  Esparto,  90%; 

chemical  wood,  10  %. 

Messrs  J.  Dickinson  & Co.,  Ltd. 

No.  28. 


Description.  .Siz« in  Weight,  Sheets  in 

inches.  lb.  ream. 

M.  G.  Poster.  17^x2 2\  20  516 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Chemical  wood. 


Messrs  J.  Dickinson  & Co.,  Ltd. 


No.  29. 


Description. 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 
inches.  lb.  ream. 


Approximate  Furnish. 


White  tissue 


20  x 30  7 480 


Chemical  wood,  70  % ; 
straw.  30  7C. 


555.” 


Messrs  Lepard  & Smiths,  Ltd. 


■QS  .OW 


.riaimu'i  siJsmixcnqqA 


ni  zlssdS  .idgisW  ni  axiS 

.m£9i  .dl  .a^doni 


.noilqhoaaG 


; 0\°  ot  <boow  IfioimariD 
•o\°  °£  *winte 


08^ 


V 0£  x os  euzzii  9*irfW 

« t 


.qtJ  ,2htim8  & aaAaaJ 


■III 


No.  30. 


Description. 

Cream  wove,  copying 

“T.Y.” 


Size  in  Weight,  Sheets  in 
inches.  lb.  ream. 

18  x 23  6 504 


Messrs 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Rag  (trace  of  chemical 
wood). 

Lepard  & Smiths,  Ltd. 


0£  .oM 


.riaimu"1!  aJjsnrcixoiqqA 

l£Dim9rto  lo  aDJSii) 
ffaoow 


ni  aJasrfS 
• rtlBSl 


■ ■ 

,JffgiaY/ 

.cfl 


ai  3siS  , . 

!»ibni  .noUqnoM® 

£S  8 1 -gm^qoa  <svow  m sstO 


.arJ  ,8htim8  >!>  ciflAqaJ  aiaasM 


.7.T 


No.  31. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Weight,  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

White  blotting 

i7i x 22^ 

38  480 

All  rag. 

Crown  Blotting.  Messrs  Lepard  & Smiths,  Ltd. 


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No.  32. 


Description. 


Drying  royal 


Size  in 
inches. 


Weight, 

lb. 


20X25  44 


Sheets  in 


480 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Rag,  80  % ; 
chemical  wood,  20  % 


Messrs  Spalding  & Hodge,  Ltd. 


Description.  'gg£ 

Weight.  Sheets  in 
lb.  ream. 

Approximate  Furnish. 

Vegetable  parchment  20x30 

32  480 

. All  rag. 

Messrs  J.  Spicer  & Sons,  Ltd. 


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No.  34. 


Description. 

Imitation  parchment 


Size  in 
inches. 

20  X 30 


Weight,  Sheets  in 

lb.  ream. 

l8  480 


Approximate  Furnish. 

Chemical  wood. 


Messrs  J.  Spicer  & Sons.  Ltd. 


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